attitude

evaluation of various aspects of the social world

explicit attitudes

consiously accessible attitudes that are controllable & easy to report

implicit attitudes

unconscious associations between objects and evaluative responses

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

based on the fact that we may asociate various social objects more or less readily with positive or negative descriptive words

Social Learning

the proccess through which we acquire new information, forms of behavior, or attitudes from other people

classical conditioning

basic form of learning in which one stimulus, initially neutral, acquires the capacity to evoke reactions through respeated pairing with anotherstimulus.

one stimulus becomes a signal for presentation or occurence of the other

unconditioned stimulus

stimulus that evokes a positive or negativeresponse without substantial learning

conditioned stimulus

stimulus that comes to stand for, or signal a prior unconditioned stimulus

subliminal conditioning

classical conditioning of attitudes by exposure to stimulus that are below individuals threshold of conscious awareness

mere exposure

by having seen before, but not necessarily remembering having done so, attitudes towards an object can be formed 

illusion of truth effect

mere repetition of information creates a sense of familiarity and more positive attitudes

instrumental conditioning

basic form of learning in which responses that lead to positive outcomes or which permit avoidance of negative- are strengthened

social networks

composed of individuals with whom we have interpersonal relationships and interact with on a regular basis

observational learning

basic form of learning in which individuals acuire new forms of behavior as a result of observing others

social comparison

process thorugh which we compare ourselves to others to determine whether our view of social reality is, or is not, correct

reference groups

groups of people with whom we identify and whose opinions we value

pluralistic ignorance 

when we collectively misunderstand what attitudes others hold and believe erroneously(mistakenly) that others have different attitudes than us

vested interest

the extent to which the attitude is relevant to the concerns of the idividual who holds it

attitude correctness

feeling one's attitude is the valid or the proper one to hold

theory of reasoned action

a theory suggesting that the decision to engage in a particular behavior is the result of a rational process in which behavior options are considered, consequences or outcomes of each is are evalutated, and a decision is reached to act.

that decision is then reflected in behavioral intentions which strongly influence overt behavior

theory of planned behavior

extension of the 'theory of reasoned action' suggesting that in addition to attitudes towards a given behavior and subjective norms about it, individuals also consider their ability to perform the behavior

attitude-to-behavior process model

model of how attitudes guide behavior that emphasizes the influence of attitudes and stored knowledge of what is appropriate in a givensituation or an individual's definition of the present situation

persuasion

efforts to change others’ attitudes through the use of various kinds of messages

fear appeals

attempting to change people's behaviors by use of a message that induces fear

systematic processing

processing of information in a persuasive message that involves careful consideration of message content and ideas

central route to persuasion

attitude change resulting from systematic processing of information presented in persuasive messages

heuristic processing

processing of information in a persuasive message that involves the use of simple rules of thumb or mental shortcuts

peripheral route to persuasion 

attitude change that occurs in response to peripheral persuasion cues, which is often based on information concerning the expertise

elaboration-liklihood model (ELT)

theory suggesting that persuasion can occur in either of two disctinct ways
1. differing in the amount of cognitive effort
2. elaboration the message recieves 

reactance

negative reaction to other's efforts to reduce our freedom by getting us to believe or do what they want

forewarning

advadce knowledge  that one is about to become the target of an attempt at persuasion

increases the resistance to the persuasion that follows

selective avoidance

the tendency to direct attention away from information that challenges existing attitudes. Such avoidance increases resistance to persuasion

selective exposure

tendencies to ignore info that contradicts our attitudes while actively attending to information consistent with them

self-regulation

limited capacity to engage our willpower and control our own thinking and emotions

ego-depletion

when our capacity to self-regulate has been reduced because of prior expendentures of limited resources

cognitive dissonance 

internal state that results when individuals notice inconsistency between two or more attitudes o- between their attitudes and their behavior

less-leads-to-more 

offering individuals small rewards for engaging in counterattitudinal behavior often produces more dissonance and so more attitude change than offering them larger rewards

trivialization

concluding that either the attitudes or behavior in question are not important, so any inconsistency between them is of no importance

self-affirmation

restoring positive self-evaluations that are threatened by the dissonance

hipocrisy

publicly advocating some attitudes or behavior and then acting in a way that is inconsistent with rhese attitudes or behavior

prejudice

negative emotional responses based on group membership

discrimination

differential (usually negative) behaviors directed toward members of different social groups

risk averse

we tend to weigh possible losses more heavily than equivalent potential gains

stereotypes

cognitive compontent of attitudes towards a social group

gender stereotype

beliefs concerning the characteristics of women and men

"glass ceiling"

barriers based on attitudinal or organizational bias that prevent qualified females from advancing to top level positions

"glass cliff" effect

choosing women for leadership positions that are risky, precarious, or when the outcome is more likely to result in failure

objectification of females 

reguarding them as mere bodies that exist for the pleasure of others

tokenism

hiring based on group membership

shifting standards

when we use one groups as the standard but shift to use another group as the comparison standard when judging members of a different group

objective scales

those with measurement units that are tied to external reality so that they mean the samething regardless of category membership

subjective scales

response scales that are open to interpretation and lack an externally grounded referent

it's subjective because it can take on different meanings depending on the group membership of person being evaluated

singleism

negative stereotyping and discrimination directed toward people who are single

subtype

a subset of a group that is not consistent with the stereotype of the group as a whole

essenses

biologically based feature that is used to distinguish one group and another

minimal groups

when categorized into different groups based on some "minimal" criteria, we tend to favor others who are categorized in the same group as ourselves

incidental feelings

feelings induced separately or before a target is encountered
result: those feelings are irrelevant to the group being judged but can still affect judgements

threat

primary concerns fear that our own groups interests will be undermined or our self-esteem in jeopordy

zero-sum outcomes

those that only one person or groups can have

if one group gets them, the other group can't

realistic conflict theory

view that prejudice stems from direct competition between various social groups over scarce and valued resources

superordinate goals

those that can only be acheived by cooperation between groups 

social identity theory

theory concerned with the consequences of perceiving ourselves as a member of a social group and identifying it

modern racism

more subtle beliefs thn blatant feelings of superiority, consists of thinking minorities are seeking/receiving more benefits that deserved

bonafide pipeline

technique that uses priming to measure implicit social attitudes

collective guilt

emotional respone that people can experience when they perceive their group as responsible for illegitamat wrong doings

moral disengagement

no longer seeing sanctioning as neccesary for perpetrating harm that has been legitimized

social learning view

view that prejudice is acquired through direct and vicarious experiences in much the same manner as other attitudes

contact hypothesis

is the view that increased contact between members of various social groups can be effective in reducing prejudice between them

recategorization

shifts in the boundaries between our ingroup and some outgroup

common ingroup identity model

theory suggesting that to rhe extent individuals in different groups view themselves as members of a single social entity, intergroup bias is reduces