Term
|
Definition
| Conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure. |
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Term
| actor-observer difference |
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Definition
| We observe others from a different perspective than we observe ourselves; in some experiments this has led to differing explanations for behavior. |
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Term
| adaptation-level phenomenon |
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Definition
| The tendency to adapt to a given level of stimulation and thus to notice and react to changes from that level. |
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Term
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Definition
| Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone. In laboratory experiments, this might mean delivering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt another's feelings. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interests. see also helping. |
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Term
|
Definition
| From andro (man) _ gyn (woman)—thus mixing both masculine and feminine characteristics. |
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Term
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Definition
| Resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone (often rooted in one's beliefs, and exhibited in one's feelings and intended behavior). |
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Term
|
Definition
| Exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come they will have refutations available. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Having qualities that appeal to an audience. An appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The theory of how people explain others' behavior—for example, by attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, and attitudes) or to external situations. |
|
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Term
| authoritarian personality |
|
Definition
| A personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of out groups and those lower in status. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Self (auto) motion (kinetic). The apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark. |
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Term
|
Definition
| "Implicit" thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness, roughly corresponding to "intuition." |
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Term
|
Definition
| A cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct negotiation between parties. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A type of self fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An interdisciplinary field that integrates and applies behavioral and medical knowledge about health and disease. |
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Term
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Definition
| Persistence of one's initial conceptions, as when the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A seemingly favorable attitude that puts women on a pedestal but sometimes conveys an assumption that women need men's protection. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The interplay of biological, psychological, and social influences. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Visual detection and response to the environment but, because of brain damage, without any conscious perception. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Emotional release. The catharsis view of aggression is that aggressive drive is reduced when one "releases" aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing aggression. |
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Term
| central route to persuasion |
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Definition
| Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The way the message is delivered—whether face to face, in writing, on film, or in some other way. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The study, assessment, and treatment of people with psychological difficulties judgment accuracy. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Co-participants working individually on a noncompetitive activity. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions. For example, dissonance may occur when we realize that we have, with little justification, acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons favoring another. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A "we feeling"; the extent to which members of a group are bound together, such as by attraction for one another. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Giving priority to the goals of one's groups (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing. see also conformity. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An accomplice of the experimenter. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A perceived incompatibility of actions or goals. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A change in behavior or belief as the result of real or imagined group pressure. |
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Term
|
Definition
| In attribution theory, the extent to which others act similarly to the person whose behavior is being explained. |
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Term
|
Definition
| In attribution theory, the extent to which someone acts similarly on different occasions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. |
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Term
|
Definition
| "Explicit" thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Believability. A credible communicator is perceived as both expert and trustworthy. |
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Term
| cult (also called new religious movement) |
|
Definition
| A group typically characterized by (1) distinctive ritual and beliefs related to its devotion to a god or a person, (2) isolation from the surrounding "evil" culture, and (3) a charismatic leader. (A sect, by contrast, is a spinoff from a major religion). |
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Term
|
Definition
| The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. |
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Term
|
Definition
| In social psychology, the postexperimental explanation of a study to its participants. Debriefing usually discloses any deception and often queries participants regarding their understandings and feelings. |
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Term
|
Definition
| In research, an effect by which participants are misinformed or misled about the study's methods and purposes. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The adaptive value of anticipating problems and harnessing one's anxiety to motivate effective action. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension; occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The variable being measured, so called because it may depend on manipulations of the independent variable. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency of mildly depressed people to make accurate rather than self-serving judgments, attributions, and predictions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency for one person's intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An avoidant relationship style marked by distrust of others. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target. |
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Term
| dispositional attribution |
|
Definition
| Attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits. |
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Term
|
Definition
| In attribution theory, the specificity of the person's behavior to a particular situation. |
|
|
Term
| door-in-the-face technique |
|
Definition
| A strategy for gaining a concession. After someone first turns down a large request (the door-in-the-face), the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (consciously controlled) attitudes toward the same object. Verbalized explicit attitudes may change with education and persuasion; implicit attitudes change slowly, with practice that forms new habits. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A motive (supposedly underlying all behavior) to increase one's own welfare. The opposite of altruism, which aims to increase another's welfare. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A feeling of warmth and expansion that may provoke chills, tears, and throat clenching. Such elevation often inspires people to become more self-giving. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in another's shoes. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Contact on an equal basis. Just as a relationship between people of unequal status breeds attitudes consistent with their relationship, so do relationships between those of equal status. Thus, to reduce prejudice, interracial contact should be between persons equal in status. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it. Note: Equitable outcomes needn't always be equal outcomes. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Believing in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultural group, and having a corresponding disdain for all other groups. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Concern for how others are evaluating us. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves its participants. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors (independent variables) while controlling others (holding them constant). |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency of research participants to live up to what they believe experimenters expect of them. |
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Term
|
Definition
| One's habitual way of explaining life events. A negative, pessimistic, depressive explanatory style attributes failure to stable, global, and internal causes. |
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|
Term
| explanatory style therapy |
|
Definition
| A cognitive therapy that helps people reverse their negative beliefs about themselves and their futures. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Consciously controlled attitudes. |
|
|
Term
| external locus of control |
|
Definition
| The belief that chance or outside forces determine one's fate. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviors. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An avoidant relationship style marked by fear of rejection. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Research done in natural, real-life settings outside the laboratory. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills. |
|
|
Term
| foot-in-the-door phenomenon |
|
Definition
| The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The way a question or an issue is posed; framing can influence people's decisions and expressed opinions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| People who benefit from the group but give little in return. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The blocking of goal-directed behavior. |
|
|
Term
| fundamental attribution error |
|
Definition
| The tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others' behavior. (Also called correspondence bias, because we so often see behavior as corresponding to a disposition). |
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Term
|
Definition
| In psychology, the characteristics, whether biological or socially influenced, by which people define male and female. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A set of behavior expectations (norms) for males and females. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Acronym for "graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction"—a strategy designed to deescalate international tensions. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as "us". |
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Term
|
Definition
| Group-produced enhancement of members' preexisting tendencies; a strengthening of the members' average tendency, not a split within the group. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one's own group). |
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Term
|
Definition
| "The mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence-seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive in-group that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action." — Irving Janis (1971). |
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Term
|
Definition
| The study of the psychological roots of health and illness. Provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgments. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one's ability to have foreseen how something turned out. Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Aggression driven by anger and performed as an end in itself. (also called affective aggression). |
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Term
|
Definition
| Antagonistic attitudes toward women. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable than they are. |
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|
Term
| illusion of invulnerability |
|
Definition
| An excessive optimism that blinds people to warnings of danger. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others. |
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Term
|
Definition
| During groupthink, the overestimating of group members' consensus. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The human tendency to underestimate the speed and the strength of the "psychological immune system," which enables emotional recovery and resilience after bad things happen. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events. |
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|
Term
| implicit association test (IAT) |
|
Definition
| A computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes. The test uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. Easier pairings (and faster responses) are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Automatic, unconscious attitudes. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency to like what we associate with ourselves, such as the letters in our name. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Defining the self apart from others. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The experimental factor that a researcher manipulates. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The concept of giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another's favor. |
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Term
|
Definition
| "Us"—a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency to favor one's own group. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Aggression that is a means to some other end. |
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|
Term
| insufficient justification |
|
Definition
| Reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is "insufficient". |
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Term
|
Definition
| Win-win agreements that reconcile both parties' interests to their mutual benefit. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A relationship in which the effect of one factor (such as biology) depends on another factor (such as environment). |
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Term
|
Definition
| Construing one's identity in relation to others. |
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|
Term
| internal locus of control |
|
Definition
| The belief that one controls one's own destiny. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one's close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The process by which certain group members motivate and guide the group. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| The sense of hopelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events. |
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|
Term
| linguistic intergroup bias |
|
Definition
| The tendency to communicate positive ingroup and negative outgroup behaviors in general, trait terms (and to describe negative ingroup and positive outgroup behaviors in more limited, specific terms). |
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Term
|
Definition
| The extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A tactic for getting people to agree to something. People who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante. People who receive only the costly request are less likely to comply with it. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a "good match" in attractiveness and other traits. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| In its economic meaning, refers to prioritizing the accumulation of money and material possessions, often involving conspicuous consumption. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A phenomenon that feeds groupthink when some members protect the group from information that would call into question the effectiveness or morality of its decisions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A tendency for people with minority views to express them less quickly than do people in the majority. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong source. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Incorporating "misinformation" into one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The perception of certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary within which one applies moral values and rules of fairness. Moral inclusion is regarding others as within one's circle of moral concern. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An effect by which exposure to mug shots of a suspect increases the likelihood that the witness will later choose that suspect in a lineup. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing generations. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The motivation to think and analyze. Assessed by agreement with items such as "The notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me" and disagreement with items such as "I only think as hard as I have to". |
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Term
|
Definition
| A motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose. (Also called mixed-motive situations). |
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Term
|
Definition
| Conformity based on a person's desire to fulfill others' expectations, often to gain acceptance. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Standards for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior. (In a different sense of the word, norms also describe what most others do—what is normal). |
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Term
|
Definition
| Acting in accord with a direct order or command. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Acts of excluding or ignoring someone. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| "Them"—a group that people perceive as distinctively different from or apart from their ingroup. |
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|
Term
| outgroup homogeneity effect |
|
Definition
| Perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members. Thus, "they are alike; we are diverse". |
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|
Term
| overconfidence phenomenon |
|
Definition
| The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race (Also called the cross-race effect or other-race effect). |
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Term
|
Definition
| A state of intense longing for union with another. Passionate lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner's love, and are disconsolate on losing it. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| A condition marked by low levels of hostility and aggression and by mutually beneficial relationships. |
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|
Term
| peripheral route to persuasion |
|
Definition
| Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| A sense of one's personal attributes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies. Its size depends on our familiarity with whoever is near us. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| The process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. |
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|
Term
| physical-attractiveness stereotype |
|
Definition
| The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: What is beautiful is good. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| The tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| A false impression of what most other people are thinking or feeling, or how they are responding. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| A preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Attachments marked by a sense of one's own unworthiness and anxiety, ambivalence, and possessiveness. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Other things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Activating particular associations in memory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Positive, constructive, helpful social behavior; the opposite of antisocial behavior. See also helping. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Geographical nearness. Proximity (more precisely, "functional distance") powerfully predicts liking. |
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|
Term
| psychological immune system |
|
Definition
| People's strategies for rationalizing, discounting, forgiving, and limiting emotional trauma. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (1) An individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race. See also racial prejudice. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The process of assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition. (Note the distinction between random assignment in experiments and random sampling in surveys. Random assignment helps us infer cause and effect. Random sampling helps us generalize to a population). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom. Reactance arises when someone threatens our freedom of action. |
|
|
Term
| realistic group conflict theory |
|
Definition
| The theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Information presented last sometimes has the most influence. Recency effects are less common than primacy effects. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. |
|
|
Term
| regression toward the average |
|
Definition
| The statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The perception that one is less well-off than others with whom one compares oneself. |
|
|
Term
| representativeness heuristic |
|
Definition
| The tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member. |
|
|
Term
| reward theory of attraction |
|
Definition
| The theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Recalling mildly pleasant events more favorably than the actual experience of them. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A theory that (a) people often experience a self-image threat, after engaging in an undesirable behavior; and that (b) they can compensate by affirming another aspect of the self. Threaten people's self-concept in one domain and they will compensate either by refocusing or by doing good deeds in some other domain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A self-conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. It makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A person's answers to the question "Who am I?". |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others. |
|
|
Term
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Definition
| A sense that one is competent and effective, distinguished from self-esteem, which is one's sense of self-worth. A bombardier might feel high self-efficacy and low self-esteem. |
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| A person's overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth. |
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| A belief that leads to its own fulfillment. |
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| Protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure. |
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| Being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression. |
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| The theory that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us, by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs. |
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| The act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one's ideals. |
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Definition
| The tendency to process efficiently and remember well information related to oneself. |
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| Beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information. |
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| self-serving attributions |
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Definition
| A form of self-serving bias; the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to other factors. |
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Definition
| The tendency to perceive oneself favorably. |
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| Seeking, eliciting, and recalling feedback that confirms one's beliefs about himself or herself. |
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| (1) An individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex. See also gender. |
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| Attributing behavior to the environment. |
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| A delayed impact of a message that occurs when an initially discounted message becomes effective, as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it. |
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Definition
| The mutual support and cooperation enabled by a social network. |
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Definition
| Evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others. |
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Definition
| An ironic situation in which individuals' rationally pursuing their individual interests leads to collective harm. |
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Term
| social dominance orientation |
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Definition
| A motivation to have one's group dominate other social groups. |
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Definition
| The theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs. |
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Term
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Definition
| (1) Original meaning: the tendency of people to perform simple or well-learned tasks better when others are present. (2) Current meaning: the strengthening of dominant (prevalent, likely) responses in the presence of others. |
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Definition
| The "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships. |
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Definition
| Leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support. |
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Definition
| The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished. |
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Definition
| The tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable. |
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| An integration of biological and social perspectives that explores the neural and psychological bases of social and emotional behaviors. |
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| The scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. |
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| Socially shared beliefs—widely held ideas and values, including our assumptions and cultural ideologies. Our social representations help us make sense of our world. |
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Term
| social-responsibility norm |
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Definition
| An expectation that people will help those needing help. |
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Definition
| Culturally provided mental instructions for how to act in various situations. |
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Definition
| A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing its self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. Examples include the Prisoner's Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Commons. |
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Term
| spontaneous trait inference |
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Definition
| An effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone's behavior. |
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Definition
| The belief that others are paying more attention to one's appearance and behavior than they really are. |
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Definition
| A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people. Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information. |
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Term
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Definition
| A disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one's reputation into one's self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects. |
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Definition
| A person's expectation of being victimized by prejudice or discrimination. |
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Definition
| Accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of the group. |
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Definition
| Stimuli with intensity below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness. |
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Definition
| Accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by thinking of them as "exceptions to the rule". |
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Definition
| A shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences from one another. |
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Definition
| Leadership that organizes work, sets standards, and focuses on goals. |
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Term
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Definition
| According to "terror management theory," people's self-protective emotional and cognitive responses (including adhering more strongly to their cultural worldviews and prejudices) when confronted with reminders of their mortality. |
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Term
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Definition
| An integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events. |
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Term
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Definition
| The "commons" is any shared resource, including air, water, energy sources, and food supplies. The tragedy occurs when individuals consume more than their share, with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse—the tragedy—of the commons. |
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Term
| transformational leadership |
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Definition
| Leadership that, enabled by a leader's vision and inspiration, exerts significant influence. |
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Term
| two-factor theory of emotion |
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Definition
| Arousal × its label = emotion. |
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Term
| two-step flow of communication |
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Definition
| The process by which media influence often occurs through opinion leaders, who in turn influence others. |
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Term
| women-are-wonderful effect |
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Definition
| A favorable stereotype of women that includes the view that women are more understanding, kind, and helpful than men. |
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