Term
| implementation intentions |
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Definition
| People's specific plans about where, when and how they will fulfill a goal |
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Term
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Definition
| The extent to which people can predict the intensity and duration of their emotional reactions to future events |
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Term
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Definition
The finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends
-The people who, by chance, are the ones you see and interact with the most often are the most likely to become your friends and lovers.
- Study in apartment complex: |
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Term
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Definition
| The finding that the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more apt we are to like it |
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Term
| Evolutionary Approach to Mate Selection |
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Definition
A theory derived from evolutionary biology that holds that men and women are attracted to different characteristics in each other (men are attracted by women's appearance; women are attracted by men's resources) because this maximizes their chances of reproductive success
-Females consider carefully when and with whom to reproduce because for females, reproduction is costly in terms of time, energy, and effort. Female reproductive success is measured in successfully raising each of their offspring to maturity
-For males, reproduction is a low-cost, short-term investment for males. Male reproductive success is measured in quantity. |
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Term
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Definition
| The attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection |
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Term
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Definition
| The feelings of intimacy and affection we have for someone that are not accompanied by passion or physiological arousal |
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Term
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Definition
| An intense longing we feel for a person, accompanied by physiological arousal; when our love is reciprocated, we feel great fulfillment and ecstasy, but when it is not, we feel sadness and despair |
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Term
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Definition
| The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants |
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Term
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Definition
| An attachment style characterized by trust, a lack of concern with being abandoned, and the view that one is worthy and well liked |
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Term
| Avoidant Attachment Style |
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Definition
| An attachment style characterized by a suppression of attachment needs because attempts to be intimate have been rebuffed; people with this style find it difficult to develop intimate relationships. |
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Term
| Anxious/ Ambivalent Attachment Style |
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Definition
| An attachment style characterized by a concern that others will not reciprocate one's desire for intimacy, resulting in higher-than average levels of anxiety. |
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Term
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Definition
The idea that people's feelings about a relationship depend on their perceptions of the rewards and costs of the relationship, the kind of relationship they deserve, and their chances for having a better relationship with someone else.
- how people feel about a relationship will depend on their perceptions of the rewards they receive from it, their perceptions of the costs they incur, and their beliefs regarding what kind of relationship they deserve (and the probability that they could find a better relationship with someone else)
- In essence, we "buy" the best relationship we can get--one that gives us the most value for our emotional dollar.
- Basic concepts= reward, cost, outcome, and comparison level. |
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Term
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Definition
| People's expectations about the level of rewards and punishments they are likely to receive in a particular relationship |
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Term
| Comparison Level for Alternatives |
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Definition
| People's expectations about the level of rewards and punishments they would receive in an alternative relationship. |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that people's commitment to a relationship depends not only on their satisfaction with the relationship in terms of rewards, costs, and comparison level and their comparison level for alternatives, but also on how much they have invested in the relationship that would be lost by leaving it. |
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Term
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Definition
| The idea that people are happiest with relationships in which the rewards and costs experiences and the contributions made by both parties are roughly equal |
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Term
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Definition
| Relationships governed by the need for equity (i.e., for an equal ratio of rewards and costs) |
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Term
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Definition
| Relationships in which people's primary concern is being responsive to the other person's needs |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Intentional behavior aimed at causing physical harm or psychological pain to another person. |
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Term
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Definition
| Aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain or injury |
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Term
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Definition
| Aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain |
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Term
| Frustration-Aggression Theory |
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Definition
| The theory that frustration--the perception that you are being prevented from attaining a goal-- increases the probability of an aggressive response. |
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Term
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Definition
| An object that is associated with aggressive responses (e.g., a gun) and whose mere presence can increase the probability of aggression. |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that people learn social behavior (e.g., aggression) in large part by observing others and imitating them. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ways of behaving socially that we learn implicitly from our culture |
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Term
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Definition
| The notion that "blowing off steam' --by performing a verbally or physically aggressive act, watching others engage in aggressive behaviors, or engaging in a fantasy of aggression--relieves built-up aggressive energies and hence reduces the likelihood of further aggressive behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| How people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember and use social information to make judgments and decisions |
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Term
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Definition
| Thinking that is non conscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless |
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Term
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Definition
| Mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about, and remember |
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Term
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Definition
| The extent to which shames and concepts are at the forefront of people's minds and are therefore likely to be used when making judgements about the social world |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept |
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Term
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Definition
| The case wherein people have an expectation about what another person is like, which influences how they act toward that person, which causes that person to behave consistently with people's original expectations, making the expectations come true. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mental shortcuts people use to make judgements quickly and efficiently |
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Term
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Definition
| A mental rule of thumb whereby people base a judgement on the ease with which they can bring something to mind |
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Term
| Representativeness Heuristic |
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Definition
| A mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case |
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Term
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Definition
| Information about the frequency of members of different categories in the population |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context; this type of thinking is common in Western cultures |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to each other; this type of thinking is common in East Asian cultures (e.g., China, Japan, and Korea) |
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Term
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Definition
| Thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful |
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Term
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Definition
| Mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been |
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Term
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Definition
| The fact that people usually have too much confidence in the accuracy of their judgments |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people |
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Term
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Definition
| The way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words; nonverbal cues include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, the use of touch, and gaze |
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Term
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Definition
| To express or emit nonverbal behavior, such as smiling or patting someone on the back |
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Term
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Definition
| To interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behavior other people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension and not kindness |
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Term
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Definition
| A facial expression in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion |
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Term
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Definition
| Culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display |
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Term
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Definition
| Nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture; they usually have direct verbal translations--such as the OK sign |
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Term
| Implicit Personality Theory |
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Definition
| A type of schema people use to group various kinds of personality traits together; for example, many people believe that someone who is kind is generous as well |
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Term
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Definition
| A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality |
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Term
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Definition
| The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she i sin; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation |
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Term
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Definition
| A theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a person's behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs |
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Term
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Definition
| Information about the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does |
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Term
| Distinctiveness Information |
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Definition
| Information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli |
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Term
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Definition
| Information about the extent to which the behavior between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances |
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Term
| Fundamental Attribution Error |
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Definition
| The tendency to overestimate the extent to which people's behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors |
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Term
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Definition
| The seeming importance of information that is the focus of people's attention |
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Term
| Two-Step Process of Attribution |
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Definition
| Analyzing another person's behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for the behavior, after which one may adjust the original internal attribution |
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Term
| Self-Surfing Attributions |
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Definition
| Explanations for one's successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situations factors |
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Term
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Definition
| Explanations for behavior that avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to think that other people are more susceptible to attributional biases in their thinking than we are |
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Term
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Definition
| A form of defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and that good things happen to good people |
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Term
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Definition
| The Self: Understanding Ourselves in Social Context |
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Term
| Independent View of the Self |
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Definition
| A way of defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people |
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Term
| Interdependent View of the Self |
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Definition
| A way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people, recognizing that one's behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others |
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Term
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Definition
| The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives |
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Term
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Definition
| The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values |
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Term
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Definition
| Theories about the causes of one's own feelings and behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture (e.g., "absence makes the heart grow fonder") |
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Term
| Reasons-Generated Attitude Change |
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Definition
| Attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one's attitudes; people assume that their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalize |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs |
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Term
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Definition
| The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures |
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Term
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Definition
| The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons |
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Term
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Definition
| Rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done |
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Term
| Performance-Contingent Rewards |
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Definition
| Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task |
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Term
| Two-Factor Theory of Emotion |
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Definition
| The idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it |
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Term
| Misattribution of Arousal |
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Definition
| The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do |
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Term
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Definition
| The idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change |
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Term
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Definition
| The idea that our abilities are malleable quality that we can cultivate and grow |
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Term
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Definition
| The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people |
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Term
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Definition
| Comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability |
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Term
| Downward Social Comparison |
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Definition
| Comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability |
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Term
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Definition
| The process whereby people adopt another person's attitudes |
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Term
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Definition
| The attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen |
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Term
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Definition
| The process whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person, often of higher status |
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Term
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Definition
| The strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves |
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Term
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Definition
| people's evaluations of their own self-worth--that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that holds that self-esteem serves as a buffer, protecting people from terrifying thoughts about their own mortality |
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Term
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Definition
| The combination of excessive self-love and a lack of empathy toward others |
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Term
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Definition
| The Need to Justify Our Actions: The Costs and Benefits of Dissonance Reduction |
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Term
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Definition
| A drive or feeling of discomfort, originally defined as being caused by holding tow or more inconsistent cognitions and subsequently defined as being caused by performing an action that is discrepant from one's customary, typically positive self-conception |
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Term
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Definition
| IN the context of dissonance theory, a way of reducing dissonance by reminding oneself of one or more of one's positive attributes |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of one's emotional reactions to future negative events |
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Term
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Definition
| Dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives |
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Term
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Definition
| An unscrupulous strategy whereby a salesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a low cost, subsequently claims it was an error, and then raises the price; frequently, the customer will agree to make the purchase at the inflated price |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain |
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Term
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Definition
| A reason or an explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual (e.g., in order to receive a large reward or avoid a severe punishment) |
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Term
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Definition
| The reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (e.g., one's attitude or behavior) |
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Term
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Definition
| Stating an opinion or attitude that runs counter to one's private belief or attitude |
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Term
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Definition
| The dissonance around when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals devaluing the forbidden activity or object |
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Term
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Definition
| A long-lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts at self-justification |
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Term
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Definition
| The arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that run counter to their behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavior. The purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings |
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Term
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Definition
| Evaluations of people, objects, and ideas |
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Term
| Cognitively Based Attitude |
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Definition
| An attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object |
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Term
| Affectively Based Attitude |
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Definition
| An attitude based more on people's feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object |
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Term
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Definition
| The phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response (e.g., your grandmother) is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not (e.g., the smell of mothballs), until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| The phenomenon whereby behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward (positive reinforcement) or punishment |
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Term
| Behaviorally Based Attitude |
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Definition
| An attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an object |
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Term
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Definition
| Attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report |
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Term
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Definition
| Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious |
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Term
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Definition
| Communication (e.g., a speech or television ad) advocating a particular side of an issue |
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Term
| Yale Attitude Change Approach |
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Definition
| The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience. |
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Term
| Elaboration Liklihood Model |
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Definition
| A model explaining two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: centrally, when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and peripherally when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics (e.g., who gave the speech) |
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Term
| Central Route to Persuasion |
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Definition
| The case in which people elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments, which occurs when people have both the ability and the motivation to listen carefully to a communication |
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Term
| Peripheral Route to Persuasion |
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Definition
| The case in which people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by peripheral cues |
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Term
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Definition
| A personality variable reflecting the extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities |
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Term
| Fear-Arousing Communication |
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Definition
| Persuasive message that attempts to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears |
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Term
| Heuristic-Systematic Model of Persuasion |
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Definition
| An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: either systematically processing the merits of the arguments or using mental shortcuts (heuristics), such as "Experts are always right" |
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Term
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Definition
| Making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position |
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Term
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Definition
| The idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of reactance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the threatened behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| The strength of the association between an attitude object and a person's evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object |
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Term
| Theory of Planned Behavior |
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Definition
| The idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, their subjective norms, and their perceived behavioral control |
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Term
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Definition
| Words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people's judgements, attitudes, and behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| Conformity: Influencing Behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| A change in one's behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people |
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Term
| Informational Social Influence |
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Definition
| The influence of other people that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information to guide our behavior; we confirm because we believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than ours and will help us choose an appropriate course of action |
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Term
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Definition
| Conforming to other people's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right |
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Term
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Definition
| Conforming to other people's behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what the other people are doing or saying |
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Term
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Definition
| The rapid spread of emotions or behaviors through a crowd |
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Term
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Definition
| The occurrence in a group of people of similar physical symptoms with no known physical cause |
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Term
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Definition
| The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members |
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Term
| Normative Social Influence |
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Definition
| The influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them; this type of conformity results in public compliance with the group's beliefs and behaviors but not necessarily in private acceptance of those beliefs and behaviors. |
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Term
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Definition
| The idea that conforming to social influence depends on the group's importance, the immediacy, and the number of people in the group |
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Term
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Definition
| The tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough idiosyncrasy credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, behave deviantly without retribution from the group |
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Term
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Definition
| The case where a minority of group members influences the behavior or beliefs of the majority |
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Term
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Definition
| People's perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others |
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Term
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Definition
| People's perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others |
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Term
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Definition
| Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups |
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Term
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Definition
| Three or more people who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other |
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Term
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Definition
| Shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave |
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Term
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Definition
| Qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between members |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency for people to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency for people to relax when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated, such that they do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks |
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Term
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Definition
| The loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people can't be identified (such as when they are in a crowd). |
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Term
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Definition
| Any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving |
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Term
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Definition
| The combined memory of two people that is more efficient than the memory of either individual |
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Term
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Definition
| A kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of its members |
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Term
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Definition
| The idea that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation |
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Term
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Definition
| Leaders who set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them |
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Term
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Definition
| Leaders who inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals |
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Term
| Contingency Theory of Leadership |
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Definition
| the idea that leadership effectiveness depends both on how task-oriented or relationship-oriented the leader is and on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group |
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Term
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Definition
A leader who is concerned more with getting the job done than with workers' feelings and relationships.
-Do well in high control and low control work situation |
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Term
| Relationship-Oriented Leader |
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Definition
A leader who is concerned more with workers' feelings and relationships
-do best in moderate-control situations |
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Term
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Definition
| A conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on everyone |
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Term
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Definition
| A means of encouraging cooperation by at first acting cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did (cooperatively or competitively) on the previous trial. |
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Term
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Definition
| A form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers and counteroffers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree. |
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Term
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Definition
| A solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to it but important to the other side. |
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Term
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Definition
| Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures |
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Term
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Definition
| A hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their membership in that group |
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Term
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Definition
| A generalization about a group of people, in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to see relationships, or correlations, between events that are actually unrelated |
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Term
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Definition
| Unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group solely because of his or her membership in that group |
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Term
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Definition
| Outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes |
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Term
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Definition
| The case wherein people have an expectation about what another person is like, which influences how they act toward that person, which causes that person to behave consistently with people's original expectations, making the expectations come true) |
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Term
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Definition
| The apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype |
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Term
| Institutional Discrimination |
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Definition
| Practices that discriminate, legally or illegally, against a minority group by virtue of its ethnicity, gender, culture, age, sexual orientation, or other target of societal or company prejudice |
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Term
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Definition
| Racist attitudes that are held by the vast majority of people living in as society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm |
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Term
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Definition
| Sexist attitudes that are held buy the vast majority of people living in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to go along with the group in order to fulfill the group's expectations and gain acceptance |
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Term
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Definition
| The perception that individuals in the out-group are more similar to each other (homogeneous) than they really are, as well as more similar than members of the in-group are. |
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Term
| Ultimate Attribution Error |
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Definition
| The tendency to make dispositional attributions about an entire group of people |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to lame individuals (make dispositional attributions) for their victimization, typically motivated by a desire to see the world as a fair place |
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Term
| Realistic Conflict Theory |
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Definition
| The idea that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination |
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| The tendency for individuals, when frustrated or unhappy, to displace aggression onto groups that are disliked, visible, and relatively powerless |
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| The situation that exists when two or more groups need to depend on one another to accomplish a goal that is important to each of them |
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| A classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice and raise the self-esteem of children by placing them in small, desegregated groups and making each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material and do well in the class |
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| The process by which people notice and pay attention to information in the environment; because people cannot perceive everything that is happening around them, they acquire only a subset of the information available. |
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| The process by which people store in memory information they have acquired from the environment |
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| The process by which people recall information stored in their memories |
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| The fact that people are better at recognizing faces of their own race than those of other races |
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| The process whereby memories of an event become distorted by information encountered after the event occurred. |
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Definition
| The process whereby people try to identify the source of their memories |
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| A machine that measures people's physiological responses (e.g., heart rate) while answering an operator's questions, to determine truth or deception |
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| Recollections of a past event, such as sexual abuse, that have been forgotten or repressed |
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Definition
| Remembering a past traumatic experience that is objectively false but is nevertheless accepted by the person as true |
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Definition
| even modest amounts of alcohol led both sexes to find members of opposite sex about 25% more attractive |
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Definition
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Definition
| This means that intoxicated people often respond to the earliest and most obvious aspects of a social situation and tend to miss the subtleties |
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Definition
a match between our interests, attitudes, values, background, or personality and those of another person.
-"Birds of a feather flock together" |
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Definition
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Term
| Does similarity or complementarity draw people together? |
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Definition
similarity
- However, pursuant to research conducted by Showers (2005), people tend to favor others who are dissimilar from them when it comes to short-term/ low-commitment relationships/flings. |
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Term
| "What is beautiful is good" stereotype |
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Definition
we tend to attribute to beautiful people positive qualities that have nothing to do with their looks.
- The beautiful are thought to be more sociable, extroverted, and popular. They are also seen as being more sexual, happier, and more assertive.
-Cultural differences: not in regards to the big picture, however there is some evidence of cultural differences with certain traits attributed to those who are "beautiful"
--> Individualistic cultures: "beautiful" associated with personal strength
--> Collectivistic cultures: "beautiful" associated with integrity and concern for others |
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