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| A new branch of psychology that seeks to investigate the potential role of genetic factors in various aspects of human behavior |
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| Our social ties with other persons ranging from casual acquaintance or passing friendships, to intense, long term relationships such as marriage or lifetime friendships |
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| Multicultural perspective |
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| A focus on understanding the cultural and ethnic factors that influence social behavior. |
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| A method of research in which behavior is systematically observed and recorded. |
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| A method of research in which a large number of people answer questions about their attitudes or behavior |
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| A method of research in which a scientist systematically observes two or more variables to determine whether changes in one are accompanied by changes in the other |
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| an as yet unverified prediction concerning some aspect of social behavior or social thought |
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| experimentation (experimental method) |
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| A method of research in which one or more factors ( the independent variables) are systematically changed to determine whether such variations affect one or more other factors (dependent variables) |
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| The variable that is systematically changed in an experiment |
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| the variable that is measured in an experiment |
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| random assignment of participants to experimental conditions |
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| A basic requirement for conducting valid experiments. According to this principle, research participants must have an equal chance of being exposed to each level of the independent variable. |
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| A variable that is affected by an independent variable and then influences a dependent varialbe. Mediating variables help explain why or how specific variables influence social behavior or thought in certain ways. |
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| A technique whereby researchers withhold information about the purposes or procedures of a study from people participating in it |
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| A procedure in which research participants are provided with as much information as possible about a research project before deciding whether to participate in it |
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| procedures at the conclusion of a research session in which participants are given full information about the nature of the research and the hypothesis or hypotheses under investigation |
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| emotional reactions that are focused on or oriented toward other people and include feelings of compassion, sympathy, and concern. |
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| empathy-altruism hypothesis |
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| the suggestion that some prosocial acts are motivated solely by the desire to help someone in need |
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| negative-state relief model |
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| the proposal that prosocial behavior is motivated by the bystander's desire to reduce his or her own uncomfortable negative emotions or feelings |
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| The view that helpers respond to the needs of a victim because they want to accomplish something, and doing so is rewarding in and of itself |
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| A theory suggesting that a key goal for all organisms - including human beings - is getting our genes into the next generation; one way in which individuals can reach this goal is by helping others who share their genes |
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| help given to members of outgroups to reduce the threat they pose to the status or distinctiveness of one's own ingroup |
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| diffusion of responsibility |
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| A principle suggesting that the greater the number of witnesses to an emergence the less likely victims are to receive help. This is because each bystander assumes that someone else will do it |
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| refers to the fact that because none of the bystanders respond to an emergency, no one knows for sure what is happening and each depends on the others to interpret the situation |
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| conditions in which individuals fell that they have been excluded from some social group |
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| Behavior directed toward the goal of harming another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment |
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| general aggression model (GAM) |
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| A modern theory of aggression suggesting that aggression is triggered by a wide range of input variables that influence arousal, affective stages, and cognitions. |
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| frustration-aggression hypothesis |
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| The suggestion that frustration is a very powerful determinant of aggression |
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| actions by others that tend to trigger aggression in the recipient often because they are perceived as stemming from malicious intent |
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| provoking statements that call attention to the target's flaws and imperfections |
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| cultures in which there are strong norms indicating that aggression is an appropriate response to insults to one's honor |
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| A pattern consisting primarily of high levels of competitiveness, time urgency, and hostility. |
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| A pattern consisting of the absence of characteristics associated with the type A behavior pattern |
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| Aggression in which the prime objective is inflicting some kind of harm to the victim |
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| aggression in which the primary goal is not to harm the victim but rather attainment of some other goal- for example, access to valued resources |
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| A pattern of behavior in which one individual is chosen as the target of repeated aggression by one or more others; the target person ( the victim) generally has less power than those who engage in aggression (the bullies) |
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| bullying (repeated assaults against specific target persons) occurring in chatrooms and other internet locations |
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| procedures in which aversive consequences are delivered to individuals when they engage in specific actions |
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| the view that providing angry people with an opportunity to express their aggressive impulses in relatively safe ways will reduce their tendencies to engage in more harmful forms of aggression. |
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| refers to the tendency to respond to a threat to one's self-concept by affirming one's competence in another area (different from the threat) |
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| A collection of people who are perceived to be bonded together in a coherent unit to some degree. |
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| groups that tend to involve face to face interaction and in which the individual members are bonded to each other |
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| face to face interaction is often absent, and the members are linked together via the category as a whole rather than each other |
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| the extent to which a group is perceived as being a coherent entity. |
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| the individual's position or rank within the group |
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| the set of behaviors that individuals occupying specific positions within a group are expected to perform |
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| rules or expectations within a group concerning how its members should (or should not) behave |
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| expectations about the appropriate emotions to display or express |
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| groups in which the norm is to maintain harmony among group members, even if doing so might entail some personal costs |
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| groups where the norm is to stand out and be different from others; individual variability is expected and disagreement among members is tolerated. |
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| all forces (factors) that cause group members to remain in the group |
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| politicized collective identity |
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| Recognizing shared grievances and engaging in a power struggle on behalf of one's devalued group |
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| the philosophical and political values that govern a group |
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| splintering of a group into distinct factions following an ideological rift among members |
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| concern over being evaluated by others. such concern can increase arousal and so contribute to social facilitation effects |
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| distraction conflict theory |
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| a theory suggesting that social facilitation stems from the conflict produced when individuals attempt simultaneously, to pay attention to the other people present and to the task being performed |
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| tasks for which the group product is the sum or combination of the efforts of individual members |
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| reductions in motivation and effort when individuals work in a group compared to when they work individually |
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| negative stereotype about how people behave in crowds at sporting events, especially applied to incidents involving England's soccer fans |
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| A psychological state characterized by reduced self-awareness brought on by external conditions, such as being an anonymous member of a large crowd |
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| Behavior in which group members work together to attain shared goals |
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| A process in which individuals or groups perceive that others have taken or will soon take actions incompatible with their own interests |
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| having a sense of that you know other persons because you know their reputations, often by knowing other people they know too. |
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| situations in which each person can increase his or her individual gains by actin in one way, but if all ( or most) people do the same thing, the out comes experienced by all are reduced |
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| asynchronous forms of communication |
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| Unlike face-to-face communication where there is no delay, asynchronous forms such as e-mail and other forms of text messaging give people a period of time during which they can think about their response before responding. |
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| A situation where if one person obtains a desired outcome, others cannot obtain it |
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| A process in which opposing sides exchange offers, counteroffers, and concessions, either directly or through representatives |
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| goals that both sides to a conflict seek and that tie their interests together rather than driving them apart. |
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| distributive justice (fairness) |
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| refers to individuals' judgments about whether they are receiving a fair share of available rewards - a share proportionate to their contributions to the group or any social relationship |
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| judgments concerning the fairness of the procedures used to distribute available rewards among group members. |
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| refers to the extent to which people who distribute rewards explain or justify their decisions and show respect and courtesy to those who receive the rewards |
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| beliefs about how one's group is viewed by another group; these are often negative |
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| processes involved in combining and integrating available information to choose one out of several possible courses of action |
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| the tendency of the members of highly cohesive groups to assume that their decisions can't be wrong, that all members must support the group's decisions strongly, and that information contrary to it should be ignored |
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| A process in which people meet as a group to generate new ideas freely |
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| when women and minorities are seen as better leaders because of their ability to manage crisis. The are more likely to be selected as leader when the situation contains more risk. |
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