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Definition
| internal factors such as beliefs, values, personality traits, or abilities that guide a person's behavior. |
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Term
| fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| the failure to recognize the importance of situational influences on behavior, and the corresponding tendency to overemphasize the importance of dispositions or traits on behavior. |
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| certain situational circumstances that appear unimportant on the surface but that can have great consequences for behavior, either facilitating or blocking it or guiding behavior in a particular direction. |
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| based on the German word "gesalt", meaning "form" or "figure", this approach stresses the fact that people perceive objects not by means of some automatic registering device but by active, usually unconscious interpretation of what the object represents as a whole. |
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Definition
| a knowledge structure consisting of any organized body of stored information |
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| the understanding that other people have beliefs and desires |
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| the evolutionary principle that costs and benefits are associated with reproduction and the nurturing of offspring. Because these costs and benefits are different for males and females, one sex will normally value and invest more in each child that will the other sex. |
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| the claim that the way things are is the way they should be |
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| people's tendency to be overconfident about whether they could have predicted a given outcome |
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| research that does not involve random assignments to different situations, or conditions, and that psychologists conduct just to see whether there is a relationship between the variables |
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Definition
| in social psychology, research that randomly assigns people to different conditions, or situations, and that enables researchers to make strong inference about how these different conditions affect people's behavior |
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| when variable 1 is assumed to cause variable 2, yet the opposite direction of causation may be the case |
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| when variable 1 does not cause variable 2 and variable 2 does not cause variable 1, but rather some other variable exerts a causal infulence on both |
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| a problem that arises when the participant, rather that the investigator, selects his or her level on each variable, bringing with this value unknown other properties that make causal interpretation of a relationship difficult |
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Definition
| a study conducted over a long period of time with the same population, which is periodically assessed regarding a particular behavior |
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| assigning participants in experimental research to different groups randomly, such that they are as likely to be assigned to one condition as the other |
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| a condition comparable to the experimental condition in every way except that it lacks the one ingredient hypothosized to produce the expected effect on the dependent variable |
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| naturally occurring events or phenomina having somewhat different conditions that can be compared with almost as much rigor as in experiments where the investigator manipulates the conditions |
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| the correlation between some measure and some outcome that the measure is supposed to predict |
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| a measure of the probability that a given result could have occurred by chance |
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| the tendency to help others with the expectation that they are likely to help us in return at some future time |
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| a strategy in which the individual's first move is cooperative and thereafter the individual mimics the other person's behavior, whether cooperative of competitive |
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| a culture that is defined by its members strong concerns about thier own and others' reputations, leading to sensitivity to slights and insults and a willingness to use violence to average any perceived wrong or insult |
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| the tendency to attach less value to an offer in a negotiation once the opposing group makes it |
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| beliefs about our unique personal traits, abilities, peferences, tastes, talents, and so forth |
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| beliefs about our identities in specific relationships |
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| beliefs about our identities as members of social groups to which we belong |
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| reflected self-appraisals |
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Definition
| beliefs about what others think of our social selves |
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Definition
| subset of self-knowledge that is brought to mind in particular context |
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| the hypothesis that people compare themselves to other people in order to obtain an accurate assessment of their own opinions, abilities, and internal states |
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Definition
| cognitive structures, derived from past experience, that represent a person's beliefs and feelings about the self particular domains |
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Definition
| the tendency for information that is related to the self to be more thoroughly processed and integrated with existing self-knowledge, thereby making it more memorable |
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Definition
| the tendency to define the self in term of multiple domains that are relatively distinct from one another in content |
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| contingencies of self-worth |
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Definition
| an account of self-esteem that maintains that self-esteem is contingent on successes and failures in domains on which a person had based his or her self-worth |
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Definition
| a hypothesis that maintains that self-esteem is an internal, subjective index or marker of the extent to which a person is included or looked on favorably by others |
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Term
| self-evaluation maintenance(SEM) model |
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Definition
| a model that maintains that people are motivated to view themselves in a favorable light and that they do so through two processes: reflection and social comparison |
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Definition
| a theory that holds that people strive for stable, subjectively accurate beliefs about the self because such beliefs give them a sense of coherence |
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Definition
| processes that people use to initiate, alter, and control their behavior in the pursuit of goals, including the ability to resist short-term awards that thwart the attainment of long-term goals |
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Definition
| hypothetical selves that a person aspires to be in the future |
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| a theory that behavior is motivated by standards reflecting ideal and ought selves. Falling short of these standards produces specific emotions-dejection-related emotions for actual-ideal discrepancies,and actual-ideal discrepancies, and agitation-related emotions for actual-ought selves |
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| the self that people believe they are |
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| the self that embodies people's wishes and aspirations as held by themselves and by other people for them |
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| the self that is concerned with the duties, obligations, and external demands people feel they are compelled to honor |
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| regulating behavior with respect to ideal self standards, entailing a focus on attaining positive outcomes and approach-related behaviors |
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Definition
| regulating behavior with respect to ideal self standards, entailing a focus on avoiding negative outcomes and avoidance-related behaviors |
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Definition
| a state, produces by acts of self-control, in which people lack the energy or resources to engage in further acts of self-control |
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| presenting the person that we would like others to believe we are |
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| the public image of ourselves that we want others to believe |
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Definition
| the tendency for people to monitor their behavior in such a way that it fits situational demands |
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| misinterpretation of a group norm that results from observing people who are active at variance with their private beliefs out of a concern for the social consequences--actions that reinforce the erroneous group norm |
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Definition
| the disproportionate influence on judgement by the information presented last in a body of evidence |
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Definition
| the disproportionate influence on judgement by information presented last in a body of evidence |
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| a theory that outlines the relationship between psychological distance and the concreteness versus abstraction of thought. Psychologically distant actions and event are though about in abstract terms; actions and events that are close at hand are thought about in concrete terms |
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Definition
| "Data-driven" mental processing, in which an individual forms conclusions based on the stimuli encountered through experience |
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Definition
| "Theory-driven" mental processing, in which an individual filters and interprets new information in light of preexisting knowledge and expectations |
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Definition
| filing information away in memory based on what information is attended to and the initial interpretation of the information |
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Definition
| the extraction of information from memory |
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| to momentarily activate a concept and hence make it accessible |
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| the tendency for people to act in ways that bring the very thing they expect to happen |
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| intuitive mental operations that allow us to make a variety of judgments quickly and efficiently |
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Definition
| the process whereby judgments of frequently or probability are based on how readily pertinent instance come to mind |
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Definition
| the process whereby judgments of likelihood are based on assessments of similarity between individuals and group prototypes or between cause and effect |
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Definition
| information about the relative frequency of events or of members of different categories in the population |
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Definition
| an umbrella term used to describe the set of theoretical accounts of how people assign causes to the events around them and the effects that people's causal assessments have |
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Definition
| linking an event to a cause, such as inferring that a personality trait was responsible for a behavior |
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Definition
| a person's habitual way of explaining events, typically assessed along three dimensions: internal/external, stable/unstable, and global/specific |
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Definition
| the idea that behavior should be attributed to potential causes that co-occur with the behavior |
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Definition
| the idea that people should assign reduced weight to a particular cause of behavior if other plausible causes might have produced it |
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Definition
| the idea that people should assign greater weight to a particular cause of behavior if other causes are present that normally would produce the opposite outcome |
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Definition
| thoughts of what might have, could have, or should have happened "if only" something had been done differently |
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Definition
| a ratcheting up of an emotional reaction to an event that is proportional to how easy it is to imagine the event not happening |
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| self-serving attributional bias |
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Definition
| the tendency to attribute failure and other bad events to external circumstances, but to attribute success and other good events to oneself |
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Definition
| the belief that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get |
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Definition
| the time it takes an individual to respond to a stimulus, such as an attitude question |
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| implicit attitude measures |
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Definition
| indirect measures of attitudes that do not involve self-report |
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Definition
| a theory holding that people try to maintain balance between their beliefs, cognitions, and sentiments |
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Term
| cognitive dissonance theory |
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Definition
| a theory that maintains that inconsistencies among a person's thoughts, sentiments, and actions create an aversive emotional state that leads to efforts to restore consistency |
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Term
| induced (forced) compliance |
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Definition
| subtly compelling individuals to behave in a manner that is inconsistent with their beliefs, attitudes, or values, in order to elicit dissonance--and therefore a change in their original values |
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Definition
| bolstering our identity and self-esteem by taking note of important elements of our identity, such as our important values |
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Definition
| a theory that people come to know their own attitudes by looking at their behavior and the context in which it occurred and inferring what their attitudes must be |
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| system justification theory |
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Definition
| the theory that people are motivated to see the existing political and social status quo as desirable, fair, and legitimate |
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| terror management theory (TMT) |
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Definition
| the theory that people deal with the potentially paralyzing anxiety that comes with the knowledge of the inevitability of death by striving for symbolic immortality through the preservation of a valued worldview and the conviction that they have lived up to its values |
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Definition
| an attitudinal function that serves th alert people to rewarding objects and situations they should approach and costly or punishing objects or situation they should avoid |
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Definition
| an attitudinal function that enables people to maintain cherished beliefs about themselves and their world by protecting them from contradictory information |
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| value-expressive function |
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Definition
| an attitudinal function wherby attitudes help people express their most cherished values--usually in groups in which these values can be supported and reinforced |
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Definition
| groups whose opinions matter to a person and that affect the person's opinions and beliefs |
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Definition
| an attitudinal functino whereby attitudes help organize people's understanding of the world, guiding how they attend to, store, and retrieve information |
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Term
| heuristic-systematic model |
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Definition
| a model of persuasion that maintains that there are two different routes of persuasion: the systematic route and the heuristic route |
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Term
| elaboration likelihood model (ELM) |
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Definition
| A model of persuation that maintains that there are two different routes of persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route |
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Term
| central (systematic) route |
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Definition
| a persuasive route wherein people think carefully and diliberatly about the content of a message. attending to its logic, cogency, and arguments as well as related evidence and priciples |
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| peripheral (heuristic) route |
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Definition
| a persuasive route wherein people attend to relatively simple, superficial cues related to the message, such as the length of the message or the expertise or attractiveness of the communicator |
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Definition
| characteristics of the person who delivers the message, including the person's attractiveness, credibility, and expertise |
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Definition
| an effect that occurs when messages from unreliable sources initially exert little influence but later cause individuals' attitudes to shift |
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Definition
| aspects of the message itself, including the quality of the evidence and the explicitness of its conclutions |
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| identifiable victim effect |
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Definition
| the tendency to be more moved by the plight of a single, vivid individual than by a more abstract number of individuals |
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Definition
| characteristics of the person who receives the message. including age, mood, personality, and motivation to attended the message |
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Definition
| the assumption by most people that "other people" are more prone to being influenced by persuasive messages (such as those in media campaings) than they themselves are |
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Definition
| efforts of the media to select certain topics to emphasize, thereby shaping which issues and events people think are important |
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Term
| thought polarization hypothesis |
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Definition
| the hypothesis that more extended thought about a particular issue tends to produce more extreme, entrenched attitudes |
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Definition
| small attacks on people's beliefs that engage their attitudes, prior commitments, and knoledge structures, enabling them to counteract a subsequent larger attack and be resistant to persuasion |
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