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| Global evaluations toward some object or issue. Easier to change than behavior. |
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| Information about something; facts or what you take to be true |
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| attach supposed physiological measures & inform participants this will detect if they are lying (but it really doesn’t) |
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| Attitudes form core beliefs about identity, difficult to change |
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| eople tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them. Repeated exposure doesn't change initial dislike, however |
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| Pairing stimuli with response, usually physiological. Pavlov's Dogs |
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| Attitude formation by reinforcement/punishment |
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| Learning what's good/bad from others, interactions |
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| Attitudes become extreme as we think about them |
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| Very affected by emotions. Immediate, inescapable, compelling. Heavily automatic. |
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| Expect more consistency in thought |
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| Requires great deal of cognition |
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| Study about students being forced to advertise something not fun |
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| People seek to make their suffering/effort “worth it”—if you had a choice, you would only go through that if the reward was great |
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with a difficult decision, after you’ve decided, you need to make the other option seem worse and your chosen option better
Need to be convinced you made the right choice. |
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nconsistency between attitude (A) and behavior (B)
Correlations between attitude & behavior depend on strength of attitude and self monitoring.
Link between attitudes and behavior is sometimes weak |
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Once beliefs form, very resistant to change
Successful coping often includes restoring beliefs about how the world works
Self-blame isn’t necessarily the worst—there still is an explanation |
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| Bogus Pipeline, Unobtrusive Measures, IAT |
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| Going along with the crowd to be liked |
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| Effects of one person breaking the unanimous nature of group (but risks?) |
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| Reduces conformity, may be ostracized however |
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| Informational Social Influence |
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| Going along with the crowd because you believe the crowd knows more than you do |
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| Start with small request to gain eventual compliance with larger request |
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| Start with low-cost request and later reveal the hidden costs |
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| Draw people in with an attractive offer that is not available and then switch to a less attractive offer that is available |
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| Assigning a label to an individual and then making a request consistent with that label |
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| Start with an inflated request and then retreat to a smaller one that makes it look like a compromise |
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| Begin with inflated request but immediately adds to the deal by offering a bonus or discount |
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Captures people’s attention by doing something unexpected
When distracted, we can’t see the weaknesses of other side as well, and therefore rely on automatic thinking |
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Attempt to change a person’s mind, attitudes
3 components of persuasion:
Who – Source of the message
Says What – The message
To Whom – Audience |
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| Separate message from messenger |
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Perceived similarity to self increases liking
Physical attractiveness increases liking
What-is-beautiful-is-good effect |
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Expertise & trustworthiness
Consider who we tend not to trust? |
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| Revealing potentially bad evidence (or acknowledging the other side) to reduce its impact can make the source appear more honest and credible |
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| Distraction as Persuasion |
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Definition
Effective strategy if the message is weak
Less effective with a strong message when the audience wants to think
Ex) Fast talking, something unexpected |
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People high in need for cognition are persuaded more by strong arguments
Their attitudes are more resistant to change
People high in public self-consciousness are more persuaded by name brand and styles
Middle-aged people are most resistant to persuasion
Attitudes formed in young adulthood remain fairly stable over time |
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| Elaboration likelihood model (ELM) |
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Definition
| Suggests that automatic and conscious processing are involved in different routes of persuasion |
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Involves conscious processing
Careful and thoughtful consideration
Audience is willing & able to think
Can understand the points |
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Involves automatic processing
Influenced by simple cues, heuristics
Ex) B-I-G effect, quality is expensive
When audience is not motivated/able to think about it
Peripheral cues that can shift attitude
Increase speaker credibility, likeability
Make visible the [positive] reaction of others
Provide external rewards
Make audience feel special |
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| occurs in response to threats to perceived behavioral freedoms |
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| Less resistant to persuasion if we're warned |
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| Getting what you deserve based on contributions. Reciprocity effect. |
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Depletion of resources owned collectively
Without regulation, overconsumption often a problem
Ex)? |
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| Informational, Normative, can lead to internal attitude change. |
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| a situation where a majority of group members privately reject a norm, but assume (incorrectly) that most others accept it |
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| Always about helping yourself, and your genes. |
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Helpful Personality
Someone who is not too busy to help
Males help more with strangers & in emergencies
Females help more within relationships and in non-emergencies |
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People we perceive as similar to ourselves
Females are more likely to receive help (& attention)
Especially if physically attractive
Also, good-looking men are more likely to receive help |
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Good mood tends to increase helping—feels good
Bad moods may or may not increase helping
Guilt? Yes. Sad or angry? ~ not as consistent |
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Definition
1. Notice something is happening
2. Is there a problem?
3. Is it my responsibility?
Diffusion of responsibility
4. Know how to help
Most people can give indirect help such as calling 911
5. Provide help |
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If we have background/ training in emergencies
If we know the person in trouble
(as much) If we know about bystander effect |
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| Behavior that either damages interpersonal relationships or is culturally undesirable. |
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| Physical & verbal aggression |
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| Sex, power, aggression correlated |
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| Frustration Aggression Hypothesis |
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Definition
Frustration always leads to some form of aggression
Aggression is always due to frustration
But not fully supported:
Aggression may not occur depending on attributions, situation, self-control.
Aggression may occur as a means of social influence/control
Many times, the source of the frustration cannot be changed (no control)
Aggress in a diff situation where there is control = displaced aggression |
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Perceive ambiguous actions by others as aggressive
Aggressive people
Expect others to react aggressively
View ambiguous acts as aggressive
Assume others meant to hurt or offend them
Ex) others’ driving |
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Alcohol
Is a major factor
50% of violent crimes, intoxicated aggressor
Low doses, no problem |
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Definition
Humiliation is a major cause of violence and aggression
May be relevant to terrorism
Ex) Southern, Western US |
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is predictive of sexual aggression
High self-esteem that is sensitive to criticism
Distrustful
Gratified by dominating women |
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| Need to belong is powerful drive |
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Definition
| eople usually form relationships easily, but are reluctant to end relationships |
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Two ingredients:
Regular social contact with others
Close, stable, mutually intimate contact |
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Little difference between those who are lonely and those who aren’t
Lonely have more difficulty understanding emotional states of others |
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eople tend to pair up with others of similar attractiveness
Dating
Male friends
This emphasis on similarity drives conformity
Because humans have culture and we specialize in our contributions to the group, we also recognize benefits of diversity, unique skills
If we can establish “you need me,” we’re safe |
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| Annoying habits become more annoying over time |
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| in a more communal relationship, attempts to “pay back” may be seen as offensive |
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| 4 attachment styles—People with secure attachments tend to have healthier relationsh |
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| hree factors help explain long-term relationships (all 3 contribute, but not all 3 are required) |
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Definition
High satisfaction
Few (or devalued) alternatives
How much invested |
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Definition
Show decreases in intelligent thought
Approach new interactions with skepticism
Typically less generous, less cooperative, less helpful
More willing to cheat or break rules
Act in shortsighted, impulsive, self-destructive ways
Repeated rejection can create aggression
Aggression can lead to [further] rejection
Common theme in school shootings is long-standing social exclusion |
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Because they are aggressive
Because they withdraw from contact
Because they are different in some way |
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Affect = Prejudice
B = Discrimination
C = Stereotypes |
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| out-group homogeneity bias |
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| Our group is varied, out groups are all the same |
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| Realistic conflict theory |
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| Competition over scarce resources leads to intergroup hostility and conflict |
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| Cognitive load/stress, mood (angry or very happy), perceived threat to self or self-image all increase likelihood to rely on automatic stereotypes |
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| ehumanization and deindividuation |
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Presence of others increases arousal
Arousal increases whatever the dominant response is |
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| because no one wants to be a sucker, if one person on a team/group project starts slacking, others do too. |
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Definition
within a group, those with differing views may change others’ minds, BUT,
Have to be consistent
Will lead to private attitude change before public behavior change |
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The variable of interest is pre-existing and cannot be assigned
Ex) gender, Greek or not, spirituality
Cannot infer causation; must be tentative in conclusions |
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| Is the variable a good representation of the concept? |
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| Did the IV actually cause a change in the DV? |
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| Can findings be generalized? |
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| Same group under multiple treatments |
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Work together
Learn from one another
Help kin
Resolve conflict with aggression |
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Complex division of labor
Deliberately share knowledge
Help strangers
Resolve conflict, many alternatives |
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| Self-concept, self-esteem, self-presentation |
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| We respond to how we think others perceive us |
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| Others are paying more attention to us than they are |
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| Others can see how we really feel |
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| Upward Social Comparison does this |
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Definition
| challenges &/or depresses |
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Based on “shoulds”
Avoiding punishment (prevention)
Achieve goal? Relief
Miss Goal? Anxiety |
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Definition
Based on “goals”
Seeking reinforcement (promotion)
Achieve goal? Excitement
Miss Goal? Depression
Self-concept & Change |
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Definition
People w/ low self-esteem want to fail
Americans (esp. African-Americans) have low self-esteem
Depressed people are unrealistic
Bullies are compensating for low self-esteem
Teen pregnancies are tied to low self-esteem |
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| When making decisions, we |
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Definition
Are risk averse
Show temporal discounting
Put extra value on certainty
Don’t want to decide/commit/change
Prefer status quo, no action |
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Definition
set goals
resume activity after interruption
devise alternative plans (flexible) |
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Definition
Enjoy doing things at which they succeed
Do not persevere as much when not successful
Believe who they (and others) are is fairly stable
Are more likely to make internal attributions |
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Definition
Enjoy learning, challenges
Strive to improve performance, set higher goals
Flexible about who they (and others) are
Are more likely to make external attributions
Show perseverance |
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Definition
Thinking about people
People first
Inner processes serve interpersonal functions
Much research in social cognition is regarding the automatic mind
When able to, we use the automatic mind |
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Definition
Schemas about certain events
Leads to assumptions about what must have happened |
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Definition
Why we think something happened
Helps us understand, predict, control(?) our world
(Internal-External)
(Stable-Unstable) |
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| mental short-cuts to estimate how likely something is |
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Definition
Judge likelihood by how much it resembles the (stereo)typical case
Ex) undercover cop |
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Judge likelihood by ease with which relevant instances come to mind
Ex) Car theft |
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Definition
Judge likelihood by how easily you can imagine it
Includes counterfactuals
Near misses are easy to imagine otherwise
Ex) just missing the bus, “If only…” |
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| Anchoring/Adjustment Heuristic |
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Definition
Peoples’ estimates are influenced by a starting point (anchor) and they adjust from that point
Ex) Bargaining |
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Definition
Tendency to see an event as more likely as it becomes more specific
Ex) “Bank teller & feminist” can never be more likely than “Bank teller” |
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Definition
Tendency to overestimate link between variables that are related only slightly or not at all
Likely to join factors that stand out
Ex) Mental illness & violence |
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Definition
Tendency to ignore base rate information
Ex) divorce rates
Ex) risk of death rates |
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Definition
overestimate how many people agree with you
Particularly people you consider “like” you
Ex) political beliefs—“Of course any reasonable person…” |
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| Regression to the Mean Fallacy |
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Definition
The statistical tendency is for extremes to be followed by examples closer to average
We focus on extremes, don’t expect avg. output
Ex)Sports Illustrated jinx |
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Definition
magining alternatives to past or present factual events
Ex) Olympic medalists (Medvec, Madey, & Gilovich, 1995) |
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Definition
We are reluctant to change 1st answer.
Folk-wisdom also claims this, but research suggests if you have good reason, it IS better to change answer. |
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Definition
| a conscious reaction to some event that evaluates if it is good or bad |
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Definition
an automatic response that something is good or bad
Very rapid |
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| facial feedback hypothesis |
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Definition
Feedback from face muscles evokes or magnifies emotions
Ex) pen in teeth vs. pen in lips |
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Definition
Some arousal is good for performance
Too much arousal can hurt performance
Depends on task difficulty (Fig 6.8) |
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