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| a subfield of psychology that examines the role of genetic factors in behavior |
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| research designed to compare and contrast people of different cultures |
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| a subfield of psychology that uses the principles of evolution to understand human social behavior |
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| interactionist perspective |
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| an emphasis on how both an individual’s personality and environmental characteristics influence behavior. |
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| : research designed to examine racial and ethnic groups within cultures. |
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| : the study of how people perceive, remember, and interpret information about themselves and others. |
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| the study of the relationship between the neural and social processes |
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| the scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context |
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| Research whose goals are to enlarge the understanding of naturally occurring events and to find solutions to practical problems. |
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| Research whose goal is to increase the understanding of human behavior, often by testing hypotheses based on a theory. |
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accomplice of an experimenter who, in dealing with the real
participants in an experiment, acts as if he or she is also a participant |
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| the extent to which the measures used in a study measure the variables they were designed to measure and the manipulations in an experiment manipulate the variables they were designed to manipulate. |
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| : research designed to measure the association between variables that are not manipulated by the researcher. |
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| a disclosure, made to participants after research procedures are completed, in which the researcher explains the purpose of the research, attempts to resolve any negative feelings, and emphasizes the scientific contribution made by the participant's involvement |
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| in the context of research, a method that provides false information to participants. |
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| : in an experiment, a factor that experimenters measure to see if it is affected by the independent variable. |
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| : a form of research that can demonstrate causal relationships because 1.) the experimenter has control over the events that occur and 2.) participants are randomly assigned to conditions. |
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| the degree to which experimental procedures are involving to participants and lead them to behave naturally and spontaneously. |
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| the degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the results of a study would be obtained for other people and in other situations. |
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| a testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur. |
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| : in an experiment, a factor that experimenters manipulate to see if it affects the dependent variable. |
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| : an individual’s deliberate, voluntary decision to participate in research, based on the researcher’s description of what will be required during such participation. |
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| the degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the independent variables in an experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent variables. |
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| the degree to which different observers agree on their observations. |
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| a statistical term indicating the overall effect that an independent variable has on the dependent variable, ignoring all other independent variables. |
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| a set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular effects. |
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| the degree to which the experimental situation resembles places and events in the real world. |
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| the specific procedures for manipulating or measuring a conceptual variable |
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| A method of assigning participants to the various conditions of an experiment so that each participant in the experiment has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions. |
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| A method of selecting participants for a study so that everyone in a population has an equal chance of being in the study. |
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| a variable that characterizes pre-existing differences among the participants in a study. |
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| an organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena. |
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| The process of predicting how one would feel in response to future emotional events. |
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| Bask in Reflected Glory (BIRG) |
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| to increase self-esteem by associating with others who are successful. |
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| Downward Social Comparisons |
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| the defensive tendency to compare ourselves with others who are worse off than we are. |
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| facial feedback hypothesis |
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| The hypothesis that changes in facial expression can lead to corresponding changes in emotion. |
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| : a nonconscious form of self-enhancement. |
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| over-justification effect |
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| The tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for activities that have become associated with reward or other extrinsic factors. |
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| private self consciousness |
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| a personality characteristic of individuals who are introspective, often attending to their own inner states. |
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| public self-consciousness |
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| a personality characteristic of individuals who focus on themselves as social objects, as seen by others. |
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| the theory that self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies, thereby motivating either an escape from self-awareness or a change in behavior. |
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| the sum total of an individual’s beliefs about his or her own personal attributes. |
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| An affective component of the self, consisting of a person’s positive and negative self-evaluations. |
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| introduced in 1902 by Charles Cooley. Suggested that other people serve as a mirror in which we see ourselves. It’s very reflexive. The “other people” in this include family, peer groups, college classmates, etc. |
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| behaviors designed to sabotage one’s own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure. |
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| the tendency to change behavior in response to the self-presentation concerns of the situation. |
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| The theory that when internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain self-insight by observing their own behavior. |
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| strategies people use to shape what others think of them. |
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| A belief people hold about themselves that guides the processing of self-relevant information. |
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| when people bolster their outlooks with elaborate theories that link their own personal attributes to desirable outcomes. |
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| The theory that people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others. |
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| two factor theory of emotion |
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| The theory that the experience of emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal. |
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| The tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational causes and the behavior of others to personal factors. Example: I am late for work because it was raining and there was heavy traffic. My coworker is late for work because they are irresponsible. |
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| A group of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behavior. Two categories: personal attribution and situational attribution (defined below) |
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| The tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind. Example: Scientist asked participants in an experiment, “Which is more common, words that start with the letter r of words that contain r as the third letter?” In actuality, the English language has many more word with r as the third letter than as the first. Yet most people guessed that more words begin with r because it is easier to bring to mind words in which r appears first. |
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| The finding that people are relatively insensitive to consensus information presented in the form of numerical base rates. Social perceptions are influenced more by one vivid life story than by hard statistical facts. Example: people still buy lottery tickets despite the astonishingly low odds of winning. |
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| The belief that individuals get what they deserve in life, an orientation that leads people to disparage victims. Example: battered wives provoke their abusive husbands. |
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| - The tendency to maintain beliefs even after they have been discredited. Example: After the 9/11 attacks ten thousand residents of nine Muslim countries were interviewed. 61 percent did not believe that the attacks were carried out by Arab men despite the hard evidence that they were. |
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| Traits that exert a powerful influence on overall impressions. The presence of one trait often implies the presence of other traits. |
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| Tendencies to interpret, seek, and create information in ways that verify existing beliefs. |
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| The tendency to imagine alternative outcomes that might have occurred but did not. If we imagine a result that is better than the actual result then we’re likely to experience disappointment, regret, and frustration. If the imagined result is worse, then we react with emotions that range from relief and satisfaction to elation. |
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| A principle of attribution theory holding that people attribute behavior to factors that are present when a behavior occurs and absent when it does not. (Read page 106 for more detail) |
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| The tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions, attributes, and behaviors. Regardless of whether people are asked to predict how others feel about military spending, gun control, Campbell’s soup, certain types of music, or norms for appropriate behavior, they exaggerate the percentage of others who behave similarly or share their views. |
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| fundamental attribution error |
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| The tendency to focus on the role of personal causes and underestimate the impact of situations on other people’s behavior. |
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| implicit personality theory |
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| A network of assumptions people make about the relationships among traits and behaviors. Knowing someone has one trait thus leads us to assume that he or she has other traits as well. |
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| The process of integrating information about a person to form a logical impression. |
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| information integration theory |
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| The theory that impressions are based on (1) perceiver dispositions and (2) a weighted average of a target person’s traits. |
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| Behavior that reveals a person’s feelings without words – through facial expressions, body language, and vocal cues. Not only used to identify someone’s physical actions but also to determine his or her inner states. |
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| Attribution to internal characteristics of an actor, such as ability, personality, mood, or effort. |
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| The tendency for information presented early in a sequence to have more impact on impressions than information presented later. There are two basic explanations. The first is that once perceivers think they have formed an accurate impression of someone, they tend to pay less attention to subsequent information. Hence, when research participants read a series of statements about a person, the amount of time they spent reading each of the items declined steadily with each succeeding statement. |
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| the tendency for frequently or recently used concepts to come to mind easily and influence the way we interpret new information. |
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| A perceivers expectations can actually lead to its on fulfillment. |
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| attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people, or luck. |
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| a general term for the processes by which people come to understand one another. |
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| corespondent inference theory |
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understanding other people by observing and analyzing their behavior. This predicts that people to infer from an action whether the act itself corresponds to an enduring personal characteristic of the actor. People make inferences based on three factors:
1. a person’s degree of choice
2. expectedness of behavior
3. the intended effects or consequences of behavior. |
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| the theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under certain conditions. |
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| the tendency to perceive stimuli that differ from expectations as being even more different than they really are. |
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| behavior directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group. |
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| people who tend to see social groups as relatively fixed, static entities, and the borders between groups as relatively clear and rigid. |
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| two or more persons perceived |
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| an overestimate of the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated. |
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| people who tend to see social groups as relatively dynamic and changeable with less consistency within groups and more mallability between groups. |
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| the tendency to discrimiate in favor of ingroups are outgroups. |
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| groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging, and identity. |
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| A cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts. |
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| A form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize. |
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| out-group homogeneity effect |
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| The tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups. |
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| Groups with which an individual does not feel a sense of membership, belonging, or identity. |
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| Negative feelings toward persons based on their membership in certain groups. |
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| Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s racial background. |
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| realistic conflict theory |
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The theory hostility between groups is caused
by direct competition for limited resources. |
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| Feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared with others. |
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| Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s gender. |
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The classification of persons into groups on the
basis of common attributes. |
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| social dominance orientation |
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- A desire to see one’s ingroup as dominant over
other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups. |
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| The theory that people favor ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance theirself-esteem. |
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The theory that small gender differences are magnified in
perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women. |
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| A belief that associates a group of people with certain traits. |
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- A method of presenting stimuli so faintly or
rapidly that people do not have any conscious awareness of having been exposed to them. |
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A shared goal that can be achieved only through
cooperation among individuals. |
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