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| The scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others. How individuals interact conform, help, or judge one another in social situations |
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| Found by Norman Triplett. The idea that people perform better when others are present |
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| Found by Max Ringlemann. Sometimes people work less hard in groups. (ex. stage fright) |
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| Stanley Milgram and the Obedience Experiment |
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| Showed that people obey authority figures even when asked to do harmful things. Participants thought they were shocking someone just because an authority figure told them to |
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| Explores fundamental principles of behavior |
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| Uses knowledge to solve real problems |
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| Basic Vs. Applied Research |
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| Studying how people form impressions (basic) vs. using that info to improve job interviews. (applied) |
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| Records and describes behavior without manipulation. Includes archival research, observational research, and surveys |
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| Examines relationships between variables without proving causation |
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| An outside factor that explains the correlation between two other variables |
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| Direction of Effect Problem |
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| It's often unclear which variable influences the other |
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| Tests cause and effect by manipulating an independent variable and measuring its impact on a dependent variable |
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| The variable changed or controlled by the experimenter |
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| The outcome measured in response to the independent variable |
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| The group that doesn't receive the treatment, used for comparison |
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| The group that receives the experimental treatment |
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| A testable prediction about the relationship between variables |
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| The self is made up of Affect (feelings), Behavior (actions), and Cognition (thoughts) |
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| The self-concept is everything you know about yourself - your traits, roles, and values |
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| How much you like or value yourself. High self esteem boosts confidence. Low self esteem can cause self doubt |
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| Mental frameworks about yourself that guide what you notice and remember |
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| Controlling how others see you buy managing your behavior and appearance |
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| Creating excuses or obstacles to protect your image if you fail |
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| The gap between your actual self and your ideal self. Big gaps can cause guilt or stress |
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| A negative social label that leads to rejection or discrimination |
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| Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic Motivation |
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| Intrinsic motivation is an internal motivation such as wanting to be good. Extrinsic motivation comes from rewards or pressure. Think exercising because it is fun vs. to lose weight |
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| External rewards can reduce intrinsic enjoyment. Ex. A child who loves reading loses interest when rewarded for it |
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| Quick judgements formed about others, often based on appearance or behavior |
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| Fundamental Attribution Error |
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| Assuming someone's behavior reflects their personality instead of the situation. Ex. Assuming someone is rude for cutting in line, not realizing they're in a hurry for an emergency |
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| Expectations about someone lead them to act in ways that confirm those beliefs. Ex. Treating someone as unfriendly and making them act distant |
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| High expectations lead to improved performance |
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| Jone's Correspondent Inference Theory |
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| We infer traits from actions. How actions correspond to traits. Ex. assuming someone who volunteers is generous |
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| Mental shortcuts used to make quick decisions. Ex. Choosing a busy restaurant because you assume its good |
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| Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind. Ex. Overestimating plane crashes after seeing one on the news |
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| First information we learn about someone shapes our overall impression. Ex. Thinking a new coworker is nice because they greeted you first. |
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| Seeking evidence that confirms our existing beliefs and ignoring the rest. Ex. Only remembering the times your friend was late when you already think they're unreliable |
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| Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination |
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| Stereotypes are beliefs about groups, prejudice is a negative attitude (feeling) toward them, and discrimination is unfair behavior. |
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| Racism and Sexism (Hostile and Benevolent) |
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| Racism and sexism involve bias based on race or gender. Hostile is openly negative, while benevolent seems positive but reinforces stereotypes |
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| What someone believes others think about their group |
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| Stigma and it's 4 characteristics |
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| Stigmas vary by visibility, contrallability, disruptiveness, and aesthetic quality |
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| Anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype can harm performance |
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| Grouping people based on shared traits; it simplifies perception but can cause bias |
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| Ingroup: the groups we belong to. Outgroup: the ones we don't. People favor their ingroup |
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| Sherif Robbers Cave Study |
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| Showed how competition creates conflict and cooperation reduces it. |
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| People define themselves by group memberships, boosting ingroup pride but sometimes biasing against others |
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| Cultures emphasizing cooperation, family, and group goals over personal ones |
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| Learning a culture's values, norms, and behaviors through others |
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| Showed internalized racism: Black children preferred white dolls, showinf early awareness of bias |
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| Allport's Contact Hypothesis |
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| Prejudice can be reduced when groups meet under the right conditions - equal status, cooperation, shared goals, and support from authority |
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| A classroom strategy that reduces prejudice by making students depend on each other to complete tasks |
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| Common Ingroup Identity Model |
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| Prejudice drops when people see themselves as part of one larger group |
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| A positive, negative, or mixed evaluation toward something or someone |
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| Implicit Association Test (IAT) |
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| Measures unconscious associations between concepts and feelings to reveal hidden biases |
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| Peripheral vs. Central Route of Processing |
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| Central processing focuses on the strength of an argument where peripheral relies on quick cues such as attractiveness or tone |
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| Attitude Embodiment Effects |
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| Physical actions can shape attitudes or feelings |
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| Which route you use depends on motivation and ability. Focused people tend to use the central, distracted people use Peripheral |
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| The communicator's credibility, attractiveness, or likability affects persuasion |
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| Messages from unreliable sources can become persuasive over time when the source is forgotten |
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| What the communicator says and how its framed |
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| The channel through which the message is delivered - tv, social media, print, etc |
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| Logical, fact based arguments aimed at convincing through reason |
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| The difference between what the audience believes and the message's stance. Moderate discrepancies are most persuasive |
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| Persuading through emotional responses like fear, guilt, or happiness |
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| Using fear to motivate change - works best with clear solutions |
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| Feel-good messages make people more open to persuasion |
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| Hidden or subtle messages meant to influence subconsciously |
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| Characteristics of the receiver - age, mood, knowledge |
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| Describes how much people enjoy thinking deeply |
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| Exposing people to weak counterarguments builds resistance to stronger persuasion later |
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| The discomfort from inconsistency between beliefs and behavior |
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| Ways to Reduce Cognitive Dissonance |
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| Change behavior, justify actions, or alter beliefs |
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| Impression Management Theory |
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| Suggests people sometimes adjust their expressed attitudes to appear consistent or likable |
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