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| An individuals knowledge about his or her personal qualities |
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| The theory that people make inferences about their personal characteristics on the basis of their overt behaviors when internal cues are weak or ambiguous |
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| The theory that people learn about and evaluate their personal qualities by comparing themselves to others |
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| Actor-observer differences in attribution |
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| The tendency to attribute our own behaviors to situational causes while seeing others' acts as due to their inner characteristics |
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| An individual's positive or negative evaluation of him or herself |
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| Any tendency to gather or interpret information concerning the self in a way that leads to overly positive evals |
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| An individual's interpretation of a self-relevant event or situation that directs emotional responses and behavior |
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| The theory that people evaluate themselves against internal "ideal" and "ought" standards, producing specific emotional consequences |
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| A state of heightened awareness of the self, including the individual's internal standards and whether he or she measures up to them |
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| A motive for choosing behaviors that are intended to reflect and express the self-concept |
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| A motive for choosing behaviors intended to create in observers a desired impression of the self |
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| A personality characteristic defined as the degree to which people are sensitive to the demands of social situations and shape their behaviors accordingly |
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| Efforts undertaken to reduce negative consequences of self-threatening events |
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| The process of seeing oneself as a member of a social group |
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| Those aspects of the self-concept that derive from an individual's knowledge and feelings about the group memberships he or she shares with others |
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| The theory that people's motivation to derive self-esteem from their group memberships is one driving force behind in-group bias |
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| BIRG (Bask in Reflected Glory) |
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| A way of boosting self-esteem by identifying oneself with the accomplishments or good qualities of fellow in-group members |
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| Out-group homogeneity effect |
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| The tendency to see the out-group as relatively more homogeneous and less diverse than the in-group |
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| Minimal intergroup situation |
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| A research situation in which people are categorized, on an arbitrary or trivial basis, into groups that have no history, no conflicts of interest, and no stereotypes |
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| The fear of confirming others' negative stereotype of your group |
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| The strategy of individual escape, either physical or psychological from a stigmatized group |
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| The strategy of introducing and emphasizing new dimensions of social comparison, on which a negatively regarded group can see itself as superiou |
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| The strategy of improving the overall societal situation of a stigmatized group |
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| A body of knowledge that an individual has stored in memory |
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| The ability of a cue to attract attention in its context |
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| The processing principle that individuals' and groups' views of the world are slow to change and prone to perpetuate themselves |
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| A link between two or more cognitive representations |
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| The activation of a cognitive representation to increase its accessibility and thus the likelihood that it will be used |
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| The process of characterizing someone as having a personality trait that corresponds to his or her observed behavior |
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| The tendency to infer an actor's personal characteristics from observed behaviors, even when the inference is unjustified because other possible causes of the behavior exist |
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| Relying on accessible information to make inferences or judgments, while expending little effort in processing |
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| Giving thorough, effortful consideration to a wide range of information relevant to a judgment |
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| A judgment about the cause of a behavior or other event |
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| The process by which one person's expectations about another become reality by eliciting behaviors that confirm the expectations |
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| Any positive or negative behavior that is directed toward a social group and its members |
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| A positive or negative evaluation of a social group and its members |
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| A cognitive representation or impression of a social group that people form by associating particular characteristics and emotions within the group |
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| Two or more people who share some common characteristic that is socially meaningful for themselves or for others |
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| The process of identifying individual people as members of a social group because they share certain features that are typical of the group |
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| Generally accepted ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving that people in a group agree on and endorse as right and proper |
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| The theory that certain types of direct contact between members of hostile groups will reduce stereotyping and prejudice |
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| A narrower and more specific social group, such as housewife or feminist, that is included within a broad social group, like women |
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| A relationship in which people exchange rewards in order to receive benefits in return |
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| A relationship in which people reward their partner out of direct concern and to show caring |
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| A relationship involving strong and frequent interdependence in many domains of life |
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| A situation in which each person's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors influence those of other people |
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| The combined forces that hold the partners together in an enduring relationship |
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| People's basic orientations towards others in close relationships, which can be secure, preoccupied, avoidant, or fearful |
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| Emotional and Physical Coping Resources provided by other people |
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| An increase in the likelihood of highly accessible responses, and a decrease in the likelihood of less accessible responses, due to the presence of others |
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| Reliance on other members of a group for mastery of material outcomes that arise from the group's task |
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| Reliance on other members of the group for feelings of connectedness, social and emotional rewards, and a positive social identity |
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| The tendency to exert less effort on a task when an individual's efforts are an unidentifiable part of a group effort than when the same task is performed alone |
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| A process in which one or more group members are permitted to influence and motivate others to help attain group goals |
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| A perceived incompatibility of goals between two or more parties |
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| Behavior intended to harm someone else |
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| Realistic conflict theory |
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| The theory that intergroup hostility arises from competition among groups for scarce but valued material resources |
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| Relative deprivation theory |
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| The theory that feelings of discontent arise from the belief that other individuals or groups are better off |
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| The process by which parties in conflict communicate and influence each other to reach agreement |
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| Shared goals that can be attained only if groups work together |
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| Sources of Self-Knowledge |
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Definition
1. Introspection
2. Social Feedback
3. Social Comparison
4. Self Perception |
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| Examples of Social Feedback |
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Definition
Symbolic Interactionism
Reflected appraisals
Looking Glass Self |
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| Examples of Social Comparison |
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Definition
1. Festinger (1954)
2. Stapel and Blanton Reading -- even subliminal exposure to social comparison info may be sufficient to activate the self and self-evaluative processes --
"Einstein, clown, and signature study" |
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| Examples of Self-Perception |
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Definition
1. Bem (1967) Self-Perception Theory---individuals make inferences about themselves based on their own behavior
2. Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett (1973) -- Overjustification Effect -- If you are rewarded (as expected) for your art, you play less with markers than those who had a surprise reward |
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Definition
1. Nuttin (1987) -- Name-Level Effect -- surprising preference for one's own initials
2. Brett Pelham -- Implicit Egotism -- people live in states or cities like their names
3. Jones, Pelham, Carvallo, & Mirenberg (2004) -- Implicit Egotism -- people marry people with the same last name, liked people better when parafovely primed with their own birthday
4. Otten & Wentura (1999) -- minimal group paradigm -- people make less errors when the word is in "their" group
5. Beggan (1992) -- Mere Ownership Effect -- just owning something associates it with ourselves, and therefore we prefer it more |
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Definition
1. Gilovich, Medvec, & Savitsky (2000)-- Spotlight Effect -- we think everyone is watching us , we also rank ourselves higher than others in group participation
2. Ross & Sicoly (1976) -- marriage partners over-estimate their own contribution and under-estimate their partner's contribution |
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Term
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Definition
1. We think we are transparent to to others (memorability to me = memorability to others)
2. Gilovich, Savitsky, & Medvec (1999) --- people think that others can tell they are lying, but people actually can't
3. Neutral Expectations -- people think that others can tell when they get gross food, but they couldn't |
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| Strategic Self-Management |
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Definition
1. Cialdini et al. (1976) -- Basking in Reflected Glory -- Winners!
2. Self-Handicapping
2.1 Berglas & Jones (1978) -- Males self-handicapped when they had no internal justification for how well they did
3. Fear of Death (Terror Management -- Landau et. al. 9/11 study -- fear of death leads to bolstering of faith) |
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| Person Perception Research Over Time |
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1. Traits (40s-50s) -- Asch
2. Attribution (60s and 70s) -- Jones & Davis, Kelley
3. Social Cognition (80s and 90s)
3.1 Cold (info processing -- i.e. input and output)
3.2 Hot (motivated social cognition -- i.e. threat to self) |
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| Asch (1946) Person Perception Research |
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Definition
| Focused on traits -- discovered central traits (i.e. warm v. cold) |
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| Implicit Personality Theories |
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| People share a sense of traits that tend to co-occur, e.g. Rosenberg et al. (1968) trait clusters and Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & Xu -- Warmth and Competence main themes |
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Definition
1. Jones & Davis (1965) -- Correspondent Inference Theory -- when people freely choose to do something, its ok to think that it is "inherent" in them
2. Kelley (1967) Covariation Model of Causal Attribution "MASH and Russ" (Consistency Matters)
3. Gilbert, Pelham & Krull (1988) -- Initial characterization stands unless there are corrections (which require cognitive effort) -- rating whether a person is anxious |
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| Social Cognition Movement |
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1. Role of construct accessibility in Impression Formation
1.1 Priming Paradigm
1.2 Person Memory |
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| Examples of Hot Social Cognition |
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Definition
| 1. Fein & Spencer (1997) -- when self threatened, we rely on stereotypes to denigrate others (Ego-defensive function of attitudes) |
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