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Definition
| Prejudice & discrimination based on a person’s racial background, or institutional and cultural practices that promote one racial group over another |
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| Prejudice & discrimination based on a person’s gender, or institutional and cultural practices that promote one gender group over another |
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| Belief or associations that link whole groups of people with certain traits or characteristics |
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| Negative feelings about others because of their connection to a social group |
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| Negative behaviors directed against a person because of their membership in a particular group |
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| Groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging, and identity |
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| groups with which an individual does not feel a sense of membership, belonging, or identity |
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| – A subtle form of racism that tends to manifest when it is safe, socially acceptable, or easy to rationalize |
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| unconscious and UNINTENTIONAL but can skew judgments, attitudes, feelings, behaviors without inducing guilt or shame |
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| Implicit Association Test (IAT) |
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Definition
| Measures extent to which 2 concepts are associated by measuring how quickly or slowly participants associate cues with positive or negative concepts |
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| Perceived differences based on race tend to promote stronger feelings of fear, hostility and distrust than other social categories (gender, age, etc.) |
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| Can make interracial interactions more anxiety-provoking when try to avoid the issue |
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| Type of Racism found in Governmental, social & educational policies |
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| What a person (group) “should” be |
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| what is okay for men is not okay for women and vice versa |
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| – A form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs and feelings and affectionate and chivalrous but, potentially patronizing, beliefs and feelings |
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| Type of ambivalent sexism where an affectionate chivalrous feeling founded on potentially patronizing belief that women need and deserve protection |
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| Type of ambivalent sexism where negative, resentful feelings about women’s abilities, value, and ability to challenge men’s power |
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| When present traits such as competence and assertiveness seen as capable but less socially skilled and attractive |
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| Optimal Distinctiveness Theory |
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Definition
| Balance of desire to affiliate with desire to be distinct from others. Affiliate with small groups and distance selves from outgroups and individuals whose group status is ambiguous |
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| Cope with fear of death by constructing world-views that preserve SE |
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| Realistic Conflict Theory |
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| Hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources |
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| Feelings of discontent aroused by belief that one fairs poorly compared with others |
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| A shared goal that can only be achieved through cooperation among individuals or groups |
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| People favor ingroups over outgroups to enhance their self-esteem (SE) |
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| 2 Components of Self Esteem |
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| Personal Identity & Social Identity |
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| 2 Predictions of Social Identity Theory |
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Definition
(1.) Threats to SE heighten need for ingroup favoritism
(2.) Expressions of ingroup favoritism enhance SE |
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| Social Dominance Orientation |
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Definition
(1.) Desire to see one’s ingroup as dominant over other groups
(2.) Willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups |
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| : processes that endorse and legitimize existing social arrangements |
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| The classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes |
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| Common errors related to Social Categorization |
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Definition
Overestimate differences between groups
& Underestimate differences within groups |
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| Out-group Homogeneity Affect |
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Definition
| Tendency to assume there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than members of ingroups |
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| Social cognition (medial frontal cortex) not activated if extreme group differences exist |
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| Tendency to overestimate link between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated |
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| Fundamental Error of Attribution |
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Definition
| Attributions often result in failure to take into account situational factors |
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| People can also hold negative views about a social group even when they like individual members of that group |
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| Fundamental Effect of Stereotyping |
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| Stereotypes of groups influence people’s perceptions and interpretations of the behaviors of group members – Can lead to biases |
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| In a situation where failure will reinforce stereotype it may cause poor performance |
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| Under certain conditions, direct contact between members of rival groups will reduce stereotyping, prejudice, & discrimination |
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| Intergroup contact that emphasizes shared goals and fates and involves overlapping group membership can be helpful |
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| Process of reducing bias that leads people to pay less attention to categories and intergroup boundaries and perceive outgroup members as individuals |
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| Process of reducing bias that leads people to change their conceptions of groups allowing for the development of more inclusive sense of diversity within their ingroup |
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| Positive, negative, or mixed evaluation of an object, person, or idea that is expressed at some level of intensity |
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| Need to form an attitude; more likely to be judgmental and more opinionated in general |
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| Attitudes we are unaware of and, therefore, cannot report |
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| People can form strong positive or negative attitudes towards a neutral object when it is linked to an emotionally charged stimuli |
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| Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) |
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Definition
| that attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person’s actions |
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| 3 Factors that shape intention |
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| Attitude towards behavior, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control |
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| belief that behavior will lead to certain outcomes |
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| Motivation to comply with other people regarding behavior |
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| perceived behavioral control |
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| Expectations of success (must be opportunities) |
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| surrounded by like-minded people |
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| Factors that influence strength of behavior |
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| when person is well-informed, how information is acquired (direct vs. indirect personal experience), attack against attitude, highly accessible to awareness |
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| A process by which attitudes are changed |
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| A process by which attitudes are changed |
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| 2 routes to persuasion: central and peripheral route |
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| Think critically about content = influenced by strength and quality of argument |
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| Don’t think critically about content = focus on other cues |
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| reception, elaboration, acceptance (or rejection) |
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| rules of thumb, mind heuristics, speaker characteristics, own body movements |
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| Persuasion outcome factors |
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| source, audience, message |
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| 2 key attributes in effective communication |
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Definition
| credibility and likability |
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| 2 characteristics of credibility |
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| competence and trustworthiness |
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| People more impressed by someone who takes an unpopular stand or argues against their own self-interest |
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| A delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a non-credible source. |
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| discounting cue hypothesis |
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Definition
| people immediately discount arguments made by non-credible sources but over time they dissociate what was said from who said it |
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Definition
| primacy and recency: If have to make a decision quickly recency prevails, if decision delayed primacy prevails |
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| Certain types of message fit frame of mind or “seem right” |
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| Drawn to pursuit of achievement |
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| Protective, fearful of failure, vigilant about avoiding loss |
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| 7 strategies for resisting persuasion |
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Definition
| attitude bolstering, counter-arguing, social validation, negative affect, assertions of confidence, selective exposure, source derogation |
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| Reassuring yourself that you are right by thinking about evidence that supports your view |
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| Weighing both sides of the argument |
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| Looking to important others who share your opinion for confirmation |
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| Confidence that you are correct |
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| Ignoring arguments that you don’t agree with |
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| Faulting the other person, character attacks |
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| Persuaded by our own behavior |
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Definition
| Holding inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce |
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| techniques to reduce dissonance |
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Definition
| rationalizing, denying personal responsibility, trivializing, changing attitude to match behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| the harder clients work, the more likely they are to feel better when treatment is over |
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| 4 steps for arousal and reduction of dissonance |
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| attitude, personal responsibility, physiological arousal, attribution |
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| Impression management theory |
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Definition
| Motivated to appear consistent rather than be consistent |
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| Refers to the ways people are affected by the real or imagined pressures from others |
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| 3 forms of social influence |
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Definition
| conformity, compliance, obedience |
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Definition
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Definition
| The tendency of people to change their perceptions, opinions, and behaviors in ways that are consistent with group norms |
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| informational influences in conformity |
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Definition
| People want to make correct judgments and assume when others agree with something they must be right |
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| normative influence in conformity |
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| Fear the consequences of appearing “deviant” |
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| True acceptance or conversion. Behavior and mind (thinking) |
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| Superficial change in behavior |
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| 4 factors of majority influence |
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Definition
| size of group, focus on norms, presence of an ally, gender |
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| Overestimate what is normative |
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| People who express dissent generally seen as competent and honest but also disliked and rejected |
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| social influence occurs through direct requests |
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Definition
| Usually you aren’t interested in what they are saying, you usually just say “no” automatically |
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Definition
| Eye for an eye, return favor |
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| People who try to keep others in debt so they can cash in when necessary |
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| sequential request tactics |
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Definition
| foot in the door, lowballing, door in the face, that's not all folks |
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Definition
| A two-step compliance technique in which an influencer sets the stage for the real request by first getting a person to comply with a much smaller request |
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Definition
| A two-step compliance technique in which the influencer secures an agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs |
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Definition
| Committed to course of action so become resistant to change |
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| A two-step compliance technique in which the influencer prefaces the real request with one that is so large it is rejected |
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| A two-step compliance technique in which the influencer begins with a inflated request, then decreases its apparent size by offering a discount or bonus |
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| Behavior change produced by commands of authority |
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| in too deep before realizing it |
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| Theory that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy and number of source persons relative to the target person. |
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| Determined by status, ability, or relationship to target |
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| Source’s proximity in time and space to target |
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| People engaging in a common activity with little or no direct interaction with one another |
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| Integrated, engage in purposeful activities over time, high levels of interaction, clear boundaries for membership |
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| Range of psychological mechanisms that promote attraction to and capacity for living in groups --> self-esteem derived from others |
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| ineffective socialization |
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Definition
| negative effects --> suppressing potential of members |
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| 3 important features of groups |
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Definition
| norms, roles, cohesiveness |
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| Rules of conduct for members that can be formal or informal |
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| Set of expected behaviors that can be formal or informal |
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| helps group achieve tasks |
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| emotional support and morale |
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| Forces that push groups closer together |
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| The presence of others (real, perceived, virtual) effects individual. Presence of others helps on easy tasks and hurts on difficult tasks |
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Definition
1. The presence of others creates general physiological arousal that energizes behavior. All animals (incl. humans) tend to become aroused in presence of members of their own species
2. Increased arousal enhances individual’s ability to perform the dominant response. Response that is elicited most quickly and easily
3. Quality of performance will vary by types of task. Easy task dominant response usually correct or successful. Difficult task dominant response not usually correct |
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Definition
| produced reduction in individual output on tasks where contributions are pooled |
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| 3 factors to reduce social loafing in college group work |
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Definition
| limiting scope of project, keeping group small, using peer evaluations |
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| Individuals will try harder on collective task when they think their efforts will help them achieve outcomes of personal value |
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| increase individual effort to ensure positive outcomes |
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| people don’t want to be taken advantage of |
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| Loss of sense of individuality and reduction in normal restraints against deviant behavior |
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| 3 factors that contribute to deindividuation |
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Definition
| arousal, anonymity, reduced responsibility |
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| social identity model of deindividuation |
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Definition
| Whether people’s behavior is affected depends on the characteristics and norms of the group immediately surrounding the person and the group’s power to act according to norms |
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