Term
|
Definition
| brief, socially oriented states, help individuals w/ social goals and motivate people to act in certain ways that promote relationships |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ways we evaluate events/objects in our environment according to their relation to our current goals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| distinct themes like danger, offense, fairness, that define essential meaning for each emotion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
initial, automatic positive/negative evaluation of ongoing events based on whether they are congruent or incongruent with our goals
involve amydala, triggered by stimuli like smiling |
|
|
Term
| secondary appraisal stage |
|
Definition
| subsequent evaluation in which we determine why we feel the way we do about an event, possible ways of responding to the event, future consequences of different courses of action [for instance, a more specific appraisal transforms initial pleasant/unpleasant feelings into more specific emotions like fear, anger, pride, etc.] |
|
|
Term
| evolutionary approach to emotion |
|
Definition
emotions are biologically based adaptations that increase likelihood our genes will be passed onto the next generation
universality of emotion expression |
|
|
Term
| cultural approach to emotion |
|
Definition
emotions are strongly influenced by self-construals, values, roles, institutions, socialization practices and that these varies in different cultures
cultural variation |
|
|
Term
| Darwin's principle of serviceable habits |
|
Definition
| expressions of human emotion that we observe today derive from habitual patterns of behavior that proved useful in evolution of our primate and mammalian predecessors |
|
|
Term
| Darwin's three hypotheses about emotional expression |
|
Definition
universality: all humans have same facial muscles so people in all cultures should communicate and perceive emotion in a similar fashion
similarity between emotional expression and ancestors: emotional expressions currently should resemble expressions of other species
blind individuals will still show similar expressions b/c tendency to express emotions is encoded in our bodies |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| critique of Ekman and Friesen's emotion studies based on the fact that researchers provided terms with which participants labeled facial expressions rather than allowing the participants to label the expressions with their own words |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
highly stylized, culturally specific ways of expressing particular emotions
much cultural variability in how members of diff cultures express emotions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| emotions that are common within a particular culture, expressed w/ greater frequency and intensity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| to represent a particular emotion with numerous words and concepts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| culturally specific rules that govern how/when/to whom we express emotion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
glue to healthy relationships: trust
oxytocin = peptide, produce din hypothalamus and released into brain and bloodstream: increases pair-bonding and caregiving behavior, can be a source of trust |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
touch = central for flirting, soothing, greeting, etc.
promotes closeness in four ways:
1) provides rewards to others: right kind of touch stimulates specific cells under your skin that trigger activation in orbitofrontal cortex, which involves rewards
2) touch builds closeness by soothing in times of stress, reduces levels of stress hormone cortisol
3) encourages reciprocity: foundation of friendships and intimate bonds
4) promotes relations through communication of prosocial emotions like compassion and gratitude |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| w are likely to imitate emotions of others, central ingredient of friendship |
|
|
Term
| intergroup emotion theory |
|
Definition
group members experience emotions vis-avis other groups accoridng to identification with their own group and feeling of strength/weakness relative to the outgroup
anger and contempt are felt toward outgroups when group members feel that their group is stronger than the outgroup and when members are passionately identified with their own group
group members are more likely to feel fear when they feel weak vis-avis the outgroup |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tendnecy to attribute animal-like qualities to outgroup members and be reluctant to attribute more complex emotions to outgroup members |
|
|
Term
| feelings-as-information perspective |
|
Definition
| since many judgments are too complex for us to thoroughly review all relevant evidence, we rely on our emotions to provide us with rapid, reliable info [gut feeling] about events and conditions within our social environment |
|
|
Term
| processing style perspective |
|
Definition
different emotions lead people to reason in different ways: positive moods facilitate preexisting heuristics and stereotypes, whereas negative moods facilitate more careful attention to situational detail
Happiness --> heuristic processing
Should lead to GREATER reliance on stereotypes
Sadness --> analytic processing
Should lead to REDUCED reliance on stereotypes |
|
|
Term
| broaden and build hypothesis |
|
Definition
| positive emotions broaden our thoughts/actions to help us build emotional and intellectual resources such as empathy or the acquisition of knowledge, helping us build social resources like social networks and friendships |
|
|
Term
| emotions and moral judgments |
|
Definition
emotions are essential guides to moral decisions: moral judgments are often founded on ut feelings that take form of specific emotions that guide moral action and judgment
self-critical emotions arise when we have violated social norms/moral codes
people who are shameless are more likely to engage in violence/criminal behavior
other-condemning emotions [in response to other's immoral acts]: unfair violations of rights and freedoms are more likely to trigger anger than disgust |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| increases heart rate, blood pressure, help individual engage in physically demanding actions: each emotion has a distinct bodily "reverberation" |
|
|
Term
| two factor theory of emotion |
|
Definition
two components to emotional experience:
1) undifferentiated physiological arousal
2) person's construal of that state of undifferentiated arousal
specific emotions you experience depend largely on meaning of situation to which person attributes the arousal |
|
|
Term
| misattribution of arousal |
|
Definition
| attributing arousal produced by one cause to another stimulus in the environment |
|
|
Term
| directed facial action task |
|
Definition
| emotion-specific facial muscles movement triggers different autonomic responses |
|
|
Term
| physiological specificity hypothesis |
|
Definition
heart rate is greater for fear, anger, and sadness than for disgust
skin conductance [measure of sweat activity in hands] is greater for fear/disgust than anger/sadness
3) finger temperature is greater for anger than for fear [blood flow to hands] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
relative unimportance of the length of an emotional experience, be it pleasurable or unpleasant, in judging the overall experience
what matters is whether the peak moment and end moment are good |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
predicting our future emotions [whether an event will make us happy/sad and for how long]
four components:
predictions about the valence of one’s feelings
specific emotions that will be
experienced
intensity of the emotions
duration of emotions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tendency to underestimate our capacity to be resilient in responding to difficult life events, which leads us to overestimate extent to which life's difficulties will reduce our personal well being |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| focus too much on main elements of significant events and neglect to consider impact of ancillary aspects of event or impact of other events |
|
|
Term
| benefits of writing about emotions related to trauma |
|
Definition
1) giving narrative structure to emotions gives you insight to interior life, enhancing effort to deal with troubles
2) putting emotions into words reduces distress associated with not expressing your emotions
3) labeling emotions identifies what our emotions are due to |
|
|
Term
| dual-emotion model of threat |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
pre-stored expectations as to the kinds of emotions that people, as well as the self, are “supposed to feel “in any given context
however, there are other scenarios in which there could be a possible discrepancy between (a) your expected emotions (the emotional stereotype) and (b) how you actually respond to that situation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
People have a tendency to overestimate the duration of their future emotional reactions (Gilbert et al., 1998)
� |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
people overestimate the impact of future events on their emotional reactions
� |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| myriad ways people impact one another, including changes in attitudes, beliefs, feelings, behavior, that result form comments, actions, or even mere presence of others |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| changing one's behavior or beliefs in response to some real/imagined pressure from others |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| responding favorably to an explicit request by another person |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in an unequal power relationship, submitting to demands of the more powerful person |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
phenomenon whereby thinking a behavior makes its actual performance more likely
if we see others behave in a certain way, the idea of that behavior is brought to mind making it more likely we will behave that way ourselves
we also reflexively mimic to prepare for interaction with other people which will go smoothly if we mimic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tendency of stationary point of light in a completely darkened environment ot appear to move |
|
|
Term
| informational social influence |
|
Definition
influence of other people that results from taking their comments/actions as a source of info about what is correct, proper, or effective
want to be right, and opinions of others are useful source of into we can draw on to "get it right", especially when we're uncertain of the right answer
experimenter: Sherif
Observe others --> change private views --> change own behaviors |
|
|
Term
| Solomon Asch and conformity |
|
Definition
| predicted that when there is a clear conflict between one own's judgments and the judgment advanced by the group, there will be far less conformity than Sherif observed |
|
|
Term
| normative social influence |
|
Definition
influence of others that comes form desire to avoid their disapproval/judgments/social sanctions
people loathe to depart from social norms/subgroups they care most about
Observe others --> no change in private views --> (but still) change own behaviors |
|
|
Term
| how group size impacts conformity pressure |
|
Definition
conformity increases as group size increases
larger groups --> more normative and informational influence
effect of group size levels off quickly: larger number of people who venture a particular opinion, the more likely it has merit but only to a certain point |
|
|
Term
| how group unanimity impacts conformity pressure |
|
Definition
| if one other person agrees w/ you against everyone else, presence of an ally weakens informational and normative social influence |
|
|
Term
| how expertise/status impacts conformity pressure |
|
Definition
expertise/status goes together b/c those w/ special expertise have greater status
experts are more likely to be right, so opinions are taken more seriously
status mainly impacts normative social influence |
|
|
Term
| how culture impacts conformity pressure |
|
Definition
people in interdependent cultures are more concerned about relations to others/fitting into broader social context, people in interdependent cultures are more likely to be susceptible to informational social influence and normative
may expect them to conform more than those in independent cultures |
|
|
Term
| how gender impacts conformity pressure |
|
Definition
women = raised to value interdependence/nurture important social relationships more than men are, men are raised to value/strive for autonomy more than women
people are more likely to conform when confused about events around them [men conform in women's domains and vice versa] |
|
|
Term
| how difficulty/task ambiguity impacts conformity pressure |
|
Definition
if the judgment at hand is ambiguous, informational social influence is eliminated
only normative social influence is at work, group resistance is stronger |
|
|
Term
| how anonymity impacts conformity pressure |
|
Definition
| anonymous responses eliminates normative social influence, no need for group's disapproval |
|
|
Term
| internalization/private acceptance |
|
Definition
| private acceptance of a proposition, orientation, or ideology |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| agreeing w/ someone/advancing a position in public, even if we continue to believe something else in private |
|
|
Term
| how interpretive context of disagreement impacts conformity pressure |
|
Definition
knowing why our opinions are different can embolden us to hold our ground: lessens informational/normative social influence
informational is lessened: explanation can diminish group's impact as a source of info
normative is lessened b/c we can assume that those in the majority are aware of why we differ from them
its difficult to act independently when we don't know what to make of things |
|
|
Term
| majorities and conformity |
|
Definition
people in majority aren't concerned about social costs of stating opinion since everyone's on their side
elicit more conformity but often of public compliance sort |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| people should provide benefits to those who benefit them |
|
|
Term
| door in the face/reciprocal concessions technique |
|
Definition
| asking someone for a large favor they will refuse and then following with a more modest one |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| adding something to an original offer, which is likely to create pressure to reciprocate |
|
|
Term
| foot in the door technique |
|
Definition
| compliance technique in which one makes an initial small request to which nearly everyone complies, followed by a larger request involving real behavior of interest |
|
|
Term
| positive emotion-based approaches |
|
Definition
people in a good mood are expansive, charitable, affirmative, more likely to agree to requests
increase compliances b/c our mood colors how we interpret events and b/c of mood maintenance: it feels godo to feel good, so we want the feeling to last as long as possible |
|
|
Term
| negative emotion-based compliances |
|
Definition
negative moods can increase compliance rather than decrease: when people feel guilty, they are motivated to do what they can to get rid of the feeling
positive associations between guilt and compliance
why? desire for expiation |
|
|
Term
| negative state relief hypothesis |
|
Definition
| people engage in certain actions, such as agreeing to a request, in order to relieve negative feelings/feel better about themselves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| people reassert their prerogatives in response to the unpleasant state of arousal they experience when they believe their freedoms are threatened |
|
|
Term
| Sherif's study on conformity |
|
Definition
o Autokinetic effect → saccadic eye movements
• Put subjects in a dark room with a motionless point of light – told them it was moving around
• Dependent variable – distance the light moved (illusion)
• Phase I – private
• Phase II – public
• The data from the private trails converge in the public trails
o One of the first to ask: to what extent do these findings reflect an actual, fundamental change in private perception?
• Brings them back a year later to do the same task – all in private
• Subjects gave the same responses that they had been giving toward the end of the initial study
• Suggests that there had been a change in private/inner perspective (what we now call informational social influence) |
|
|
Term
| Malcolm Gladwell's The Tipping Point |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
evaluation of an object in a positive/negative fashion
three different elements: affect, cognitions, behavior |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| numerical scale used to assess people's attitudes that includes a set of possible answers and that has anchors on each extreme |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
time it takes na individual to respond to a stimulus such as an attitude question [degree to which attitude is accessible impacts this, helps us refine meaningful attitudes]
another approach: centrality of the attitude to our belief system |
|
|
Term
| utilitarian function of attitudes |
|
Definition
alerts us to rewarding objects/situations we should approach and costly/punishing objects/situations we should avoid
attitude toward neutral object can be modified if its paired with a stimulus that generates a strong positive/negative reaction
If X rewards us, or is otherwise associated with positive outcomes, then we learn to like X.
Conversely, if X punishes us, or is otherwise associated with negative outcomes, we learn to dislike X |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
attitudinal function that enables us to maintain cherished beliefs about ourselves by protecting us from awareness of our negative attributes and impulses or from facts that contradict our cherished beliefs/desires about ourselves or our world
General idea is that we form attitudes, in part, to defend against fundamental threats in our lives, such as knowledge of our own mortality |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| our fear of dying leads to us adopting death-denying attitudes: like cultural worldviews and values that will survive death |
|
|
Term
| core values of political conservatism |
|
Definition
1) resistance to change
2) endorsement of inequality: conservatives accept inequalities
less interest in new things --> uncertainty |
|
|
Term
| value-expressive function |
|
Definition
attitudinal function where attitudes help us express our most cherished values, usually in groups where they can be supported/reinforced
First, we form attitudes, in part, because of their connection to cherished values that we care about
We also want to let other people know what our values are and so, by extension, we are strongly driven to “advertise” our attitudes to others |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
groups whose opinions matter to us/impact our opinions and beliefs
can lead to bias |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
attitudinal function where attitudes help organize our understanding of the world, guiding how we attend to, store, retrieve information
bolsters preexisting attitudes
attitudes toward our own selves leads us to selectively recall past experiences that are consistent with those self-evaluations
Attitudes help to organize a complex environment
Typically, attitudes serve as filters, leading us to focus on information that reinforces and solidifies our existing attitudes |
|
|
Term
| heuristic-systematic model of persuasion |
|
Definition
| there are two different routes of persuasion: systematic route and heuristic route |
|
|
Term
| elaboration likelihood model [ELM] |
|
Definition
| two different routes of persuasion: central route and peripheral route |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| people think carefully and deliberately about content of the message, attend to logic, cogency, arguments, related evidence/principles |
|
|
Term
| peripheral/heuristic route |
|
Definition
people attend to simple, superficial cues related to the message, like length of message/attractiveness of communicator
individual relies on simple, implicit communication heuristics to justify attitude change |
|
|
Term
| what determines if we go through central or peripheral route in responding to persuasion? |
|
Definition
motivation to devote time/energy for a message
ability to process message in depth [clearer message --> more time to process it] |
|
|
Term
| three factors make central route more likely |
|
Definition
1) personal relevance of message
2) knowledge about issue
3) whether message makes us feel responsible for outcome/action |
|
|
Term
| three factors that make peripheral route more likely |
|
Definition
factors that
1) reduce our motivation
2) interfere with our ability to attend to the message carefully
when people are distracted, more likely to attend primarily to peripheral cues of message
strength should be less for those attending to peripherals: more affected by things like number of arguments etc |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
characteristic of person who delivers the message, like attractiveness, credibility, expertise
attractive communicators --> peripheral route
credibility --> peripheral [people don't pay attention to message, but seems credible so das chill] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
occurs when messages from unreliable sources initially exert little influence but later cause individuals' attitudes to shift
over time, people dissociate source of message from message itself
**when cues that discount noncredible source precede message, sleeper effect does not occur |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
aspects of the message itself, like quality of evidence/explictness of its conclusions
high quality messages --> more persuasive to those who find it relevant/ have knowledge about it
produce more attitude change if you make conclusions explicit and refute opposition/argue against own self interest |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
characteristics of person receiving message like age, mood, personality, motivation, etc.
need for cognition: degree to which people like to think deeply about things
high need: more persuaded by high quality arguments, unmoved by peripheral cues
mood: persuasion goes well when receiver/relayer of messages are in the same mood |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| assumption by most people that "other people" are more prone to being influenced by persuasive msgs than they themselves are |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| media's efforts to select certain events and topics to emphasize, thereby shaping which issues/events we think are important |
|
|
Term
| belief polarization hypothesis |
|
Definition
| people will dismiss evidence that contradicts initial views and derive support from evidence that is consistent with their views |
|
|
Term
| thought polarization hypothesis |
|
Definition
| more extended thought about a particular issue tends to produce more extreme, entrenched attitudes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small attacks on our beliefs that engage our attitudes, prior commitments, and knowledge structures, enabling us t counteract a subsequent larger attack and be resistant to persuasion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
“Who says what towards whom”
Who: Source characteristics
What: Aspects of the message
Whom: Recipient characteristics |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
they must attend to four important problems:
a. They must not induce too much fear
b. Must increase the viewer/listener’s perceived vulnerability, but….
c. Must also suggest a clear path to prevention (response efficacy) and…
d. Must suggest easy enactment of the prevention behavior (self-efficacy) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Positive framing: If you do X, good things will happen.
works best for
Prevention behaviors
Examples:
putting on sunscreen
exercise
use of infant car seats
use of condoms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| survey that attempts to measure interpersonal relationships in a group of people |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| architectural layout's tendency to encourage/inhibit certain activities, like contact between people |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| procedure used to ensure that any extraneous variable that may influence dependent measures is distributed equally across experimental conditions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| repeated exposure to a stimulus/object/person leads to greater liking of it |
|
|
Term
| two explanations for mere exposure effect |
|
Definition
1) fluency: experience of ease associated with perceiving and thinking
2) classical conditioning: in repeated exposure, stimulus is paired w/ something rewarding [absence of negative consequence], so we learn to associate stimulus w/ absence of anything negative, and a pleasant attachment is formed...reinforcing this |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
tendency for people to seek out others with characteristics that are different from and complement their own
more limited in scope, probably just to personality traits and not even all of them...complementarity is more of the exception |
|
|
Term
| why does similarity lead to attraction? |
|
Definition
1) similar others validate our beliefs and orientations: validation is comforting, makes us like people more
2) similarity facilitates smooth interactions: they are rewarding, able to interact with less conflict
3) we expect similar others to like us: they can be counted on to see the world the way we do |
|
|
Term
| similar others have qualities we like |
|
Definition
| we think our beliefs/attitudes have merit and are the "right" ones to have, so people similar to us have the right qualities like us |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| belief that attractive individuals possess a host of positive qualities beyond their physical appearance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tendency for people to act in ways that bring about the very thing they expect to happen |
|
|
Term
| three reasons physical attractiveness has such an impact |
|
Definition
1) immediacy: gut reaction, beauty manifests itself right away
2) prestige: its nice to know you're dating someone hot, makes you feel good [the high school reunion example vs. secretly going back and visiting], being an attractive woman boosts men's image more than vise versa
3) biology: variation in different cultures for specific preferences like skin tone and such, but there are some features of the face/body that have universal appeal, widespread agreement over who seems to be attractive |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| capacity to get one's genes passed on to subsequent generation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| direct competition b/w 2+ males or 2+ females for access to members of the opposite sex |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| interest and attraction toward a member of the opposite text |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| people are motivated to maximize own feelings of satisfaction: seek out rewards in interactions w/ others, willing to pay certain costs to obtain them |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| people are also motivated to pursue fairness/equity, in which rewards and costs are shared equally among individuals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
• Demonstration of the mere exposure effect by Mita, Dermer nad knight
• For self: prefer mirror image over original [image everyone else sees]
• Other faces: you prefer the original, not the reversed
• Data is interesting but neither mirror study nor analyses of word frequency presented by Zajanc represents controlled studies
o We want to see how experimental manipulation of frequency impacts liking |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
• Study 1: English speaking participants were presented a series of “words” which were nonsense syllables that were supposedly phonetic renderings of Turkish words
o In a counterbalanced design, researched viewed number of times each Turkish word were presented to participants, and each time the word appeared on the screen, participants were supposed to pronounce it aloud
o Then, afterwards, participants were asked to guess meaning of those words, whether they “meant” something positive or negative
• Study 2: somewhat similar design, except participants, none of whom knew anything about the Chinese language, were presented with what were supposedly Chinese ideographs, representing words
o As before, researchers varied # of times each stimulus was presented to participants
o In this study however they were told to study and remember the ideographs, later asked to guess their meaning |
|
|
Term
| parental investment hypothesis |
|
Definition
o Females have more to lose by unwise mating and tend to be choosier as a result
o “many more to lose” idea: relevant to many factors including energy/resources required by raising offspring
• see this difference even in production of male vs. female gametes |
|
|
