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| certain situational circumstances that appear unimportant of the surface but can have great consequences for behavior, either falicitating or blocking it or guiding behavior in a particular direction |
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| interpreation and inference about the stimuli or stimulus we confront |
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| internal factors, such as beliefs values, personality, or abilities, that guide a person's behavior |
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| fundamental attribution error |
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| the tendency to believe that a behavior is due to a person's disposition, even when there are situational forces present that are sufficient to explain the behavior |
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| Based on the German word, meaning "form" or "figure," this approach stresses the fact that objects are percieved not by means of some automatic registering device but by active, usually unconscious, interpretation of what the object represent as a whole |
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independent culture
(individualistic) |
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Definition
| Cultures in which people tend to think of themselves as distinct social entities, tied to each other by voluntary bonds of affection and organizational memberships but essentially separate from other people and having attributes that exist in the absence of any connection to others |
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| The claim that the way things are is the way things should be |
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interdependent culture
(collectivism) |
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| Cultures in which people tend to define themsleves as part of the collective, inextricaby tied to others in their group and having relatively little individual freedom or personal control over their lives but not necessarily wanting or needing these things |
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| The evolutionary principle that costs and benefits are associated with reproductionand the nurturing of offspring. Because these costs and benefits are different for males and females, one sex will normally value and invest more in each child than will the other sex |
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A situation involving payoffs to two people in which trust and cooperation will lead to high joint payoffs than mistrust and defection.
The game gets its name from the dilemma that would confront two criminals who were involved in a crime together and are being held and questioned separately. Each must decide whether to "cooperate" and stick with the prearranged alibi or "defect" and confess to the crime in the hope of lenient treatment |
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| Generalized knowledge about the physical and social world and how to behave in particular situations and with different kinds of people. A knowledge structure consisting of any organized body information |
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| The scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals in social situations |
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| schemas that we have found for people of various kinds that can be applied to judgements about people and decisions about how to interact with them. Beliefs that certain attributes are characteristic of members of certain groups. |
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| The understanding that other people have beliefs and desires |
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| Science concerned with solving some real-world problem of importance |
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| Science concerned with trying to understand some phenomenon in its own right, with a view toward using thatt understanding to build valid theories about the nature of some ascpect of the world |
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| A condition comparable to the experimental condition in every way except it lacks the ingredient hypothesized to produce the expected affect on the dependent variable |
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| research in which there is not random assignment to different situations, or conditions, and from which psychologists can just see whether or not there is a relationship between variable |
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| In preliminary versions of an experiment, asking participants straighforwardly if they had understood the instructions, found the setup to be reasonable, and so forth. In later versions, debriefings are used to educated participants abiut the questions being studied. |
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| Research in which the participants are misled about the purpose of the research or the meaning of something that is done to them |
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| In experimental research, the variable that is measured (as opposed to manipulated) and that is hypothesized to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable |
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| An experimental setup that closely resembles real-life situations so that the results can safely be generalized to such situations |
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| An experiment set up in the real world, usually with participants who are not aware that they are in a study of any kind |
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| People's tendency to be overconfident about whether they could have predicted an given outcome |
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| In experimental research, the variable that is manipulated and that is hypothesized to be the cause of a particular outcome |
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| Participants' willingness to participate in a procedure or research study after learning all relevant aspects about the procedure or study |
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| institutional review board |
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| A university committee that examines research proposals and makes judgments about the ethical and appropriateness of the research |
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| in experimental research, confidence that it is the manipulated variable only that could have produced the results |
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| efforts to change peoples behavior |
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| A study conducted over a long period of time with the same population, which is periodically assessed regarding a particular behavior |
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| The correlation between some measureand some outcome that the measure is supposed to predict |
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| Naturally occuring events or phenomena having somewhat different conditions that can be compared with alost as much rigot as in experiments where the investigator manipulates the conditions |
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| Assigning participants in experimental research to different groups randomly, such that they are as likely to be assigned to one condition as another |
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| The degree to which the particular way we measure a given variable is likely to yield consistent results |
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| A problem that arises when the participant, rather than the invistigator, selects his/her own level on each variable, bringing with this value unknown other properties what make causal interpreation of a relationship difficult |
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| a measure of the probability that a given result could have occurred by chance |
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| the self we truely believe ourselves to be |
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| our idenities and beliefs as they relate to the social categories to which we belong |
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| contingencies of self-worth |
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| An account of self-esteem mainatining that self-esteem is cntingent on sucesses and failures in domains on which a person has bases his/her self-worth |
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Term
| distinctiveness hypothesis |
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Definition
| the hypothesis that we identify what makes us unique in each particular context, and we highlight that in our self-definition |
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| A principle that sibling develop into quite different people so they can peacefully occupy different nickes within the family environment |
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| A state produced by acts of self control, where we don't have the energy or resources to engage in further acts of self control |
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| who we want other to think we are |
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| five personality traits (openess, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) that psychologists believe are the basic building blocks of personality |
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| the self that embodies wishes and aspirations that we and others maintain about us |
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| customary facial expressions, posture, gait clothes, haircuts, and body decorations, which signal to others important facets of out identity and, by implication, how we are to be treated and construed by others |
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| attempting to control the beliefs that others have of us |
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| indirect and ambiguos communication that allows us to hint at ideas and meanings that are not explicit in the words we utter |
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| the statements we make that we intend to be taken literally |
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| the self that is concerned with the duties, obligations, and external demands we feel we are compelled to honor |
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| beliefs about our own personality traits, abilities, attributes, preferences, tastes, and talents |
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| hypothetical selves we aspire to be in the future |
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| a sensitivity to nagative outcomes often motivated by a desire to live up to our ought self and to avoid the guilt or anxiety that results when we fail to live up to our sense of what we ought to do |
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| private self-consciousness |
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Definition
| our awareness of out interior lives - our private thoughts, feelings, and sensations |
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| a sensitivity to postive outcomes, approach-related behavior, and cheerful emotions that result if we are living up to our ideals and aspirations |
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| our awareness of what other poeple are thinking about us - our public identity |
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| beliefs about our identities in specific relationships |
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| the tendency to define the self in terms of many domains and attributes |
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| a theory that appropriate behavior is motivated by cultural and moral standards regarding the ideal self and the ought self. Violations of those standards produces emotions such as shame and guilt |
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| the positive or negative overall evaluation we have of ourselves |
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| self-evaluation maintenance model |
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| a model that maintains that we are motivated to view ourselves in a favorable light and that we do so through two different processes: reflection and social comparison |
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| the tendency to engage in self-defeating behavior in order to prevent other from drawing unwanted attributions about the self as a result of poor performance |
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| The tendency to judge other's personalitiesaccording to their similarity or dissimilarity to our own personality |
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| the tendency for people to moniter their behavior in such a way that it fits the demands of the current situation |
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| presenting who we would like others to believe we are |
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| the tendency to elaborate on and recall information that is integrated into our self knowledge |
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| Knowledge based summaries of our feelings and actions, and how we anderstand others' view about the self |
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| A theory that holds that we strive for stable, accurate beliefs about the self because such beliefs give us a sense of coherence |
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| the hypothesis that when there isn't and objective standard of evaluation or comprehension, we compare ourselves to other people in order to evaluate our opinions, abilities, and current states |
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| beliefs about the roles, duties, and obligations we assume in groups |
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| a hypothesis that maintains that self-esteem is an internal, subjective index or marker of the extent to which we are included or looked an favorably by others |
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| the dynamic, changeable self-evaluations that are experienced as momentary feelings of the self |
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| Consistent ways that pople feel, think, and act across classes of situations |
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| The enduring level of confidence and regard that pople have for ther defining abilities and characteristics across time |
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Term
| actor-observer difference |
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Definition
| a difference in attibution based on who is making the causal assessment: the actor (who is relatively disposed to make situational attributions) or the observer (who is relatively disposed to make dispositional attributions) |
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| an unbrella term that describes the set of theoretical account of how people assign causes to the events around them and the effects that people's causal assessments have |
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| The idea that we should assign greater weight to a particular cause of behavior if there are other causes present than normally would produce the opposite outcome |
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| linking an istance of behavior to a cause, whether the behavior is our own or someone else's |
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| refers to what most people would do in a situation - that is, whether most people would behave the same way or few or no people would behave the same way |
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| refers to what an individual does in a given situation on different occasions - that is, whether next time under the same circumstances, the person would behave the same or differently |
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| thought of what we might have, could have, or should happen "if only" something had been done differently |
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| the idea that we should attribute behavior to potential causes that co-occur with the bahavior |
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| the idea that we should assign reduced weight to a particular cause of behavior if there are other possible causes that could have produced it |
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| refers to what an individual does in different settings - that is, whether the behavior is unique to a particular situation or occurs in all situations |
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| a ratcheting up of an emotional reaction to an event that is proportional to how easy it is to imagine the event not happening |
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| a person's habitual way of explaining events, typically assessed along three dimensions: internal/external; stable/unstable; global/specific |
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| fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| the tendency to believe that behavior is due to a person's disposition, even when there are situational forces present that are sufficient to explain the behavior |
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Definition
| the belief that people get what they deserve in life, and deserve what they get |
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| The tendency to attribute failure and other bad events to external circumstances, but to attribute success and other good events to oneself |
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