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Definition
beliefs about the self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant info
ex. relate to other college students/females/etc |
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Definition
how we think of ourselves
-social identities
-how others view us
-comparisons |
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| individualistic/independent self-concept |
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Definition
defining oneself based on inner thoughts and feelings
(western and male)
-place trust in indiv. not institution
-take care of oneself |
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| interdependent self-concept |
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Definition
defining onself based on one's identity in relation to other
(females and eastern)
-emotionally dependent in organizations
-emotions: shame/indebtedness |
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| interdependent self-concept types |
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Definition
collective-work sites (male)
relational-significant others (female) |
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the act of thinking about ourselves
Who am I? |
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| Social Identity Theory: components |
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Definition
categorization
identification
comparison
psychological distinctiveness |
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| social identity theory: categorization |
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Definition
group ppl into categories
ex. jock vs scholar, pitt vs CMU |
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| social identity theory: identification |
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Definition
identify self with group
raises self-concept, belongingness |
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| social identity theory: comparison |
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Definition
compare own group with other group
-my group is superior |
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| social-identity theory: psychological distinctiveness |
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Definition
desire positive uniqueness from ingroup and outgroup
-PBL has better networking connections than greek organizations |
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Definition
| ingroup member that deviates is punished worse than someone in outgroup |
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two social identities are perceived as being in conflict
-leads to stress
-scholar//social |
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| creating a social concept:introspection |
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Definition
| look into self, think about feelings, what would I do in situations? |
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| we don't include things we don't know about (biases) |
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| social comparison:regulatory focus theory |
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Definition
prevention focus: vigilance strategy (careful not to do wrong)
promotion focus: eagerness strategy (attatining success) |
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| Social comparison: goal of self-enhancement |
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Definition
compare to people worse than us
-downward comparison |
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| social comparison: goal of accuracy |
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Definition
| compare to others similar than us |
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| social comparison: goal of aspirations |
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upward comparison
-people better than us (professors) |
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| within group, can protect you, respect from members |
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between groups
focus on legitimacy: if lacking, increase identity with own group |
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| Self Evaluation Maintenance Model (SEM) |
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Definition
-distance ourselves from those who perform better than us
-move closer to those who perform worse |
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Definition
| maintain positive view of self by changing values or friends/surroundings |
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Definition
| when people focus on themselves they compare their behavior to internal standards |
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| subjective self-awareness |
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Definition
| self is separate from other objects in one's physical environment (outward focus) |
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| capacity to be the object of its own attention (inward focus) |
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| uniquely human capacity to form an abstract representation of the self through language (name) |
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when our feelings are uncertain we infer them by examing our behavior and situation
-attitude and behavior are directly related |
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Definition
external reward/pressure for behavior
-grades, praise (western cultures) |
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| internal desire for behavior |
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| tendency for people to view behavior as caused by extrinsic reasons, underestimating intrinsic reasons |
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| reawrds that are given regardless of how well task is done |
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| performance contingent rewards |
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Definition
| rewards that are based on how well we perform a task |
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| belief that one can acheive a goal as a result of one's own actions, belief one can attain something, capability |
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| factors affecting self-efficacy |
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Definition
*experiences
*modeling
*social persuasion-encouragement/discouragement
*interpretations of physiological responses-way we interpret bodily actions |
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| one's overall attitude toward the self |
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| self-esteem: trait vs state |
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Definition
trait/global-never change
state/specific-fluctuates |
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| self esteem: sociometer hypothesis |
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Definition
based on how well you are doing interpersonally
-relationship strengths
-close to friends/family |
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Definition
| want others to confirm our beliefs we have about ourself |
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| effects of low self-esteem |
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Definition
| drug use, poor academics, depression |
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| effects of high self-esteem |
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Definition
| bullying, narcissism, exhibitionism, aggression |
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| rejection identification model |
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Definition
when group is discriminated=more closely identifiable
minority groups have higher self-esteem |
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Definition
| arousal and interpretation of environment ---> emtion |
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| emotion: appraisal theory |
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Definition
emotions result from people's interpretation of events
interpretation--->emotion, arousal |
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Definition
people's orientation toward stimuli that are associated with the self
-to remember things related to oneself |
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Definition
| the manner in which we interpret, analyze,remember and use information about the social world |
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| controlled social cognition |
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Definition
-intellectual tasks
-couterfactual thinking-what could have been
-thought suppression-short answer |
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Definition
monitoring process
operating process
rebound effect |
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Definition
| automatic scan for suppressed thoughts |
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| effort to distract ouselves from thought |
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brings you back to suppressed thought
-thought becomes overly accessible
-occurrs during cognitive load(operating process can't work) |
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| social cognition: automatic processing |
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Definition
cognitive mizers-least work for brain is ideal
-schemas
-heuristics
-biases |
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Definition
| mental frameworks, center around specific theme, allow for large amount of material, accessibility? (interest, current goals) |
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| tendency for beliefs and schemas to remain unchanged even when contradictory info is learned |
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increased availibility in memory or consciousness of specific types of info held in memory due to specific stimuli or events
ex. we stood by the "bank" |
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| case where people have people have an expectation about what another person is like, which influences how they act towards them, which causes person to behave consistently, making expectations true |
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| self-fulfilling prophecy experiment |
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Definition
rosenthal and jacabson
students took IQ, teachers act differently towards high score students, they acheive more |
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Definition
strategy for making judgements based on the extent to which current stimuli or events resmeble other stimuli or categories (categorize people)
-more detail=less statistically likely, more representativeness |
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Definition
strategy for making judgements on the basis of how easily info can be brought to mind
-info can come to mind bc its rare
"everytime i do this, this happens" |
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| achoring(adjustment) heuristic |
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Definition
involves the tendency to use a number or value as a starting point
-change perspective of someone based on 1st impression |
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| false consensus bias heuristics |
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Definition
| tendency to overestimate extent to which others agree with us |
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Definition
tendency to search for/interpret new info to confirm one's preconceptions and avoid info which contradict prior beliefs
-we like to think we're right |
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| negative traits stand out more than positive info |
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| predisposition to expect things will turn out well overall, underestimate risk |
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| overconfidence barrier bias |
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Definition
tendency to have more confidence in the accuracy of our judgements than is reasonable
-thinking you did better on an exam |
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| make optimistic predictions concering how long a given task will take for completion |
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what we remember in a given mood may be determined what we learned when previously in that mood
-helps memory retrieval |
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Definition
| more likely to store or remember positive info when in a positive mood, vice versa with negative |
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| process throguh which we figure out other people |
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Definition
sex differencees based on society's expectations
-construction workers vs nurses |
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| implicit personality theory |
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Definition
beliefs about traits or characteristics tend to go together
-similar to schemas
-obese person is lazy |
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Definition
channels:facial expressions, eye contact, body lang, posture, touching, voice
-women are better at perceiving |
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| body movements carrying specific meanings in a given culture |
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| sadness, fear, disgust, surprise, happiness, anger |
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encoding-sending
decoding-interpreting |
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feelnigs are transferred in a seemingly automatic way from one person to another
-mirror neurons-activate when watching someone else (empathy, priming) |
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| process through which we seek to identify the causes of others' behavior and so gain knowledge of their stable traits/dispositions |
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| to form an attribution we systematically note the pattern b/w the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs |
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| covariation model: consensus |
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Definition
extent to which other persons react to some stimulus or even in the same manner as the person we are considering
"is everyone late to class?"- external |
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| covariation model: consistency |
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Definition
| extent to which individual responds in same manner to different stimuli/events (across time) |
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| covariation model: distinctiveness |
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Definition
| extent to which an individual responds in same manner to different stimuli/events |
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| tendency to attach a less importance to one potential cause of some befavior when the other potential causes are also present |
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Definition
| tendency to attach greater importance to a potential cause of behavior if the behavior occurs despite presence of other, inhibitory causes |
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| fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| tendency to infer people's behavior corresponds to their disposition (igore external factors) |
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Definition
| we don't have knowledge of external cues so we ignore them |
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| two-step process of attribution |
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Definition
| analyzing another persons behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and then thinking about possible situational reasons, adjusting original attribution (anchoring heuristic) |
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Definition
| tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal causes and negative outcomes to external causes |
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explanations for behavior that avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality
ex. ppl fall because they are clumsy not because it is icy ( we want to think we won't fall) |
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| form of a defensive attribution where ppl assume that bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good ppl |
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Definition
self-presentation
1. appearing likeable
2. appearing competent
3. appearing powerful/high status |
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| impression management: appearing likeable |
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Definition
| smiling, flattery (slime effects-smiling at authority), physical attaction, modesty (too much-low self esteem) (true braggers/non true) |
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| impression management: appearing competent |
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Definition
| self-promoting techniques: trappings of competence,claim, stage performance |
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| attempt to get others to like us |
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behavior of withdrawing effort or creating obstacles to one's future successes (procrastinating)
-decreases risk of failure/increases worth of success
-ppl with low/fragile self esteem |
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Definition
| tendency to feel tense, worried, or awkward in social situations and unfamiliar people |
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| impression management: appearing powerful |
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Definition
display artifacts
-conspicous consumption: exaggerated display
-associate self with others of same status (basking in reflected glory "we won") (cutting off reflected failure "they lost")
-nonverbal behavior |
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| fears of self presentation: public self-consciousness |
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Definition
tendency to have chronic awareness of onself as being the public eye
-always in spotlight effect |
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Definition
| view ourselves in public light when we are not |
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fear people experience while doubting that they will be able to create desired impression
-interferes with life
-clinical problem |
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tendency to be chronically conerned with ones public image and to adjust ones actionss to fit the needs of the current situation
-skilled at detecting manipulation/reading emotions
-likely to be leaders |
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Definition
| words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may influence judgements, attitudes, and behaviors |
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| subiminial efficacy increased when: |
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Definition
| illumination is brighter, no distraction, no supraliminal messages (consciously perceived message), goal relevant(already hungry), simple messages(McD's logo) |
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Definition
| people think they can catch liars more accurately than true (54% accurate) |
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Definition
67% of studies
-short videos of lies or truth shown to strangers (irrelevant) |
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Definition
machine can be tricked by increasing arousal
-lying doesnt mean arousal
-sociopaths don't feel guilt, won't be aroused |
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| we pay attention to cues that we all know so people can fake them |
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| interchannel discrepancies |
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| interchannel discrepancies: face says one thing, words say another |
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| fleeting facial expressions lasting only tenths of a second |
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-pupils are dialated due to concentration to keep up with lies
-higher pitch voices
-exaggerated facial expressions
-increased eye contact |
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| speed of evolution affected by: |
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Definition
reproduction rates-slow in humans
environmental pressure-limited resources (island) |
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supportable population of an environment
low=faster evolution rate
-island died off |
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=success
more possible mutations=higher possibility of successful mutations=better adapted species |
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goal: prediction
not causation
-surveys |
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goal: causation
-great amt of control
-low external validity |
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manipulated, not in lab
ex. littering in clean/dirty environment |
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repeat experiment
infer reliability |
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| consistency, repeatedly exhibits same results |
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extent to which a measure accurately reflects the concept being studied
external-generalizability across situation
internal-accuracy within the study itself (controlled factors) |
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| everyday reality, should be irrelevant |
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commonly do something inside your head
ex. categorizing good/bad |
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| describing way to measure experiment precisely |
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| scientific explanation that connects and organizes existing observations and suggests fruitful paths for future research |
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deals with fundamental questions/theories
-builds up theories |
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| applying research to real-world study for everyday societal needs |
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Definition
how self concept is organized
-failure in one area brings down others
-high self complexity=more positive self concept |
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| we think others will notice our concealed emotions much more than others do |
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| concept of giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and identifying self by personal attributes over groups' |
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| priority is group's goals and defining one's identity accordingly |
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overestimating the enduring impact or emotion-causing events
-think breakup will be much worse than it is |
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| underestimate the speed and strength of recovering after bad things happen |
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overestimate commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable/unsuccesful behaviors
-smoking weed |
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Definition
underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successfuk behaviors
-not many ppl wear seatbelts but i do |
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| self-monitoring (book def) |
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Definition
| being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression |
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Definition
| tendency to be more confident than correct-overestimate accuracy of one's beliefs |
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Definition
perception of a relationship where none exists
-if we think skinnier ppl are happy, we'll pick out skinny happy ppl |
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| the enduring befaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of ppl and transmitted from one generation to the next |
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