Term
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Definition
| internal factors, such as beliefs, values, personality traits, or abilities that guide a person's behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| the scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals in social situations |
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Term
| fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| the failure to recognize the importance of situational influences on behavior, together with the tendency to overemphasize the importance of dispositions or traits on behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| certain situational circumstances that appear unimportant on the surface hut that can have great consequences for behavior, either facilitating or blocking it or guiding behavior in a particular way |
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Term
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Definition
| interpretation and inference about that stimuli or situations we confront |
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Term
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Definition
| based on German word, Gestalt, meaning form or figure, this approach stresses the fact that objects are perceived not by means of some automatic registering device but by active, usually unconscious, interpretation of what the object represents as a whole |
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Term
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Definition
| a situation involving payoffs to two people in which trust and cooperation lead to higher joint payoffs than mistrust and defection. the game gets its name from the dilemma that would confront two criminals who were together involved in a crime and who are being held and questioned separately. each must decide whether to cooperate and stick with a prearranged alibi or defect and confess to the crime in the hope of lenient treatment |
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Term
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Definition
| generalized knowledge about the physical and social world and how to behave in particular situations and with different kinds of people |
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Term
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Definition
| schemas that we have for people of various kinds that can be applied and misapplied so as to facilitate, and sometimes derail, the course of interaction |
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Term
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Definition
| an evolutionary process that operates to mold animals and plants such that traits that enhance the probability of survival and reproduction are passed on to subsequent generations |
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Term
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Definition
| the understanding that other people have beliefs and desires |
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Term
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Definition
| the evolutionary principle that since males and females have different costs and benefits associated with reproduction and the nurturing of offspring, one sex will value and invest more in each child than will the other |
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Term
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Definition
| the claim that the way things are is the way they should be |
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Term
| individualistic (independent) cultures |
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Definition
| cultures in which people tend to think of themselves as distinct social entities, tied to each other by voluntary bonds of affection and organizational memberships but essentially separate from other people and having attributes that exist in the absence of any connection to others |
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Term
| collectivistic (interdependent) culture |
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Definition
| cultures in which people tend to define themselves as part of a collective, inextricably tied to others in their groups, and in which they have relatively little individual freedom or personal control over their lives but do not necessarily want or need these things |
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Term
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Definition
| research in which there is not random assignment to different situations or conditions, and from which psychologists can just see whether or not there is a relationship between the variables |
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Term
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Definition
| studies conducted over a long period of time with the same population, which is periodically assessed regarding particular behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| a problem that arises when the participant, rather than the investigator, selects his or her level on each variable, bringing with this value unknown other properties that make causal interpretation of a relationship difficult |
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Term
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Definition
| the variable about which a prediction is made and that is manipulated in experimental research |
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Term
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Definition
| the variable that is presumed to be affected by the independent variable manipulation and that is measured in experimental research |
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Term
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Definition
| assigning participants in experimental research to different groups randomly, such that they are as likely to be assigned to one condition as another |
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Term
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Definition
| the group of participants that does not receive the experimental manipulation |
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Term
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Definition
| naturally occurring events or phenomena having somewhat different conditions that can be compared with almost as much rigor as in experiments where the investigator manipulates the conditions |
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Term
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Definition
| an experimental setup that closely resembles real-life situations |
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Term
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Definition
| the degree to which the particular way one measures a given variable is likely to yield consistent results |
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Term
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Definition
| a measure of the probability of a given result occurring by chance |
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Term
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Definition
| research in which no variable is correlated with any other variable and in which nothing is manipulated |
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Term
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Definition
| research involving observation of and often participation in the lives of people in some group or situation with the intention of studying aspects of group beliefs, values, or behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| a series of questions asked of people, sometimes students in labs and sometimes citizens in the community, to ascertain their attitudes or beliefs |
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Term
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Definition
| experiments that are set up in the real world, usually under circumstances in which participants are not aware that they are in a study of any kind |
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Term
| CH 10 - pluralistic ignorance |
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Definition
| misperception of a group norm that results from observing people who are acting at variance with their private beliefs out of a concern for the social consequences-behavior that reinforces the erroneous group norm |
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Term
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Definition
| vivid recollections of the moment one learned some dramatic, emotionally charged news |
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Term
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Definition
| emphasizing important or more interesting elements in telling a story to someone else |
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Term
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Definition
| eliminating or deemphasizing seemingly less important details when telling a story to someone else |
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Term
CH 3 Attraction
propinquity |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| a survey that attempts to measure the interpersonal relationships in a group of people |
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Term
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Definition
| an architectural layouts propensity to encourage or inhibit certain activities, like contact between people |
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Term
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Definition
| a methodological procedure whereby an investigator makes sure that any extraneous variable (a stimulus person's name) that might influence the dependent measure (liking) is distributed equally often across the different levels of independent variable (the stimulus person a participant expects to meet and the stimulus person the participant does not expect to meet) |
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Term
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Definition
| the finding that repeated exposure to a stimulus (an object or person) leads to greater liking of the stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency for people to seek out others with characteristics that are different from and that complement their own |
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Term
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Definition
| the common belief-accurate or not-that attractive individuals possess a host of positive qualities beyond their physical appearance |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency for people to act in ways that elicit confirmation of a belief they hold |
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Term
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Definition
| the capacity to get one's genes passed on to subsequent generations |
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Term
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Definition
| direct competition among two or more males or among two or more females for access to members of the opposite sex |
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Term
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Definition
| the interest and attraction toward a member of one sex on the part of a member of the opposite sex |
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Term
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Definition
| a theory based on the fact that there are costs and rewards in all relationships, and that how people feel about a relationship depends on theirs assessments of its costs and rewards, and the costs and rewards available to them in other relationship |
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Term
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Definition
| a theory that maintains that people are motivated to pursue fairness, or equity, in their relationships, with rewards and costs shared roughly equally among individuals |
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Term
CH 4 - Relationships
interpersonal relationships |
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Definition
| attachments in which bonds of family or friendship or love or respect or hierarchy tie together two or more individuals over an extended period of time |
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Term
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Definition
| a theory that examines how prior relationships shape our current beliefs, feelings, and interactions vis-a-vis people who remind us of significant others from our past |
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Term
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Definition
| the beliefs, feelings and expectations about ourselves that derive from our relationships with significant others in our lives |
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Term
| self-expansion account of relationships |
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Definition
| a theory that people enter into and remain in close relationships to expand the self by including resources, perspectives, experiences, and characteristics of the other as part of their own self-concept |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency for people in relationships to share information processing of events based on their knowledge of their partner's encoding, storage, and retrieval of information |
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Term
| experience-sampling studies |
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Definition
| studies in which researchers provide participants with beepers and randomly signal them throughout the day so that the participants will provide information about what they are doing and how they are feeling at that precise moment |
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Term
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Definition
| a theory about how our early attachments with our parents shape our relationships for the remainder of our lives |
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Term
| working models of relationships |
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Definition
| conceptual models of relationships with current others based on the other person's availability, warmth, and ability to provide security as derived from children's experience with how available and how warm their parents were |
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Term
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Definition
| an experimental situation designed to assess attachment to caregivers: an infant is observed after her caregiver has left her alone in an unfamiliar room with a stranger and then reacts to reunion with the caregiver upon her return to the room |
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Term
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Definition
| an attachment style characterized by feelings of security in relationships; individuals with this style are comfortable with intimacy and desire to be close to others during times of threat and uncertainty |
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Term
| avoidant attachment style |
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Definition
| an attachment style characterized by feelings of insecurity in relationships; individuals with this style are prone to exhibit compulsive self-reliance, prefer distance from others, and during conditions of threat and uncertainty are dismissive and detached |
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Term
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Definition
| an attachment style characterized by feelings of insecurity in relationships; individuals with this style compulsively seek closeness, express continual worries about relationships, and during situation of threat and uncertainty excessively try to get closer to others |
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Term
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Definition
| a theory that there are four quantitatively different kinds of relationships (communal sharing, authority ranking, equality matching, and market pricing), each characterized by highly distinct ways or defining the self and others, allocating resources and work, making moral judgments, and punishing transgressions |
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Term
| communal sharing relationship |
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Definition
| a relationship based on a sense of sameness and kinship-resources are generated by those in the group capable of doing so, and resources go to those in need |
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Term
| authority ranking relationship |
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Definition
| a relationship based on hierarchy, status, and a linear ordering of people within a group |
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Term
| equality matching relationship |
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Definition
| a relationship based on equality, reciprocity, and balance |
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Term
| market pricing relationship |
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Definition
| a relationship based on a sense of proportion, trade, and equity, in which people are concerned with ensuring that their inputs to a relationship correspond to what they get out of the relationship |
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Term
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Definition
| relationships in which the individuals feel little responsibility toward one another and in which giving and receiving are governed by concerns about equity and reciprocity; such relationships are often short term |
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Term
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Definition
| relationships in which the individuals feel a special responsibility for one another and give according to the principle of need; such relationships are often long term |
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Term
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Definition
| the ability to control one's own outcomes and those of others, the freedom to act |
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Term
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Definition
| the outcome of an evaluation of attributes that produces differences in respect and prominence, which in part determines an individual's power within a group |
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Term
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Definition
| power that derives from institutionalized roles or arrangments |
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Term
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Definition
| behavior that has the acquisition or demonstration of power as its goal |
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Term
| social dominance orientation |
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Definition
| the desire to see one's own group dominate other groups |
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Term
| triangular theory of love |
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Definition
| a theory that states that there are three major components of love-intimacy, passion, and commitment-which can be combined in different ways |
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Term
| interaction dynamics approach |
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Definition
| a methodological approach to the study of the behaviors and conversations of couples, with a focus on negative behaviors such as anger, criticism, defensiveness, contempt, sadness, and fear, and positive behaviors such as affection, enthusiasm, interest, and humor |
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Term
| investment model of interpersonal relationships |
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Definition
| a model of interpersonal relationships that maintains that three things make partners more committed to one another: rewards, alternatives, and investments in the relationship |
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Term
CH 5 - the Social Self
self-concept |
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Definition
| an understanding of the existence and properties of a separate self and its characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
| consistent ways that people think, feel, and act across classes of situations |
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Term
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Definition
| five personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) that psychologists believe are the basic building blocks of personality |
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Term
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Definition
| the degree to which traits or physical characteristics are determined by genes, and hence inherited from parents |
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Term
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Definition
| twins who originate from a single fertilized eff that splits into two exact replicas that then develop into two genetically identical individuals |
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Term
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Definition
| twins who originate from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm cells; like ordinary siblings, they share on average half of their genes |
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Term
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Definition
| a principle that maintains that siblings develop into quite different people so that they can peacefully occupy different niches within the family environment |
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Term
| distinctiveness hypothesis |
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Definition
| the hypothesis that we identify what makes us unique in each particular context, and we highlight that in our self-definition |
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Term
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Definition
| the hypothesis that we compare ourselves to other people in order to evaluate our opinions, abilities, and internal states |
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Term
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Definition
| beliefs about the roles, duties, and obligations we assume in groups |
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Term
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Definition
| beliefs about our identities in specific relationships |
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Term
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Definition
| our identity and beliefs as they relate to the social categories to which we belong |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency to elaborate upon and recall information that is integrated into our self-knowledge |
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Term
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Definition
| knowledge-based summaries of our feelings and actions and how we understand others' views about the self |
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Term
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Definition
| a theory that appropriate behavior is motivated by cultural and moral standards regarding the ideal self and ought self-violations of those standards produce emotions like guilt and shame when they are not adhered to |
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Term
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Definition
| the self we truly believe ourselves to be |
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Term
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Definition
| the self that embodies the wishes and aspiration we and other people maintain about ourselves |
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Term
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Definition
| a focus on positive outcomes, approach-related behavior, and cheerful emotions that help us live up to our ideals and aspirations |
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Term
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Definition
| the self that is concerned with the duties, obligations, and external demands we feel we are compelled to honor |
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Term
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Definition
| a sensitivity to negative outcomes often motivated by a desire to live up to our ought self and to avoid the guilt or anxiety that results when we fail to live up to our sense of what we ought to do |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency to judge others' personalities according to their similarity or dissimilarity to our own personality |
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Term
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Definition
| the positive or negative overall evaluation you have of yourself |
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Term
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Definition
| the enduring level of confidence and affection that people have for their defining abilities and characteristics across time |
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Term
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Definition
| the dynamic, changeable self-evaluations that are experienced as momentary feelings about the self |
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Term
| contingencies of self-worth |
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Definition
| an account of self-esteem maintaining that self-esteem is contingent on successes and failures in domains upon which a person has based his or her self-worth |
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Term
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Definition
| a hypothesis that maintains that self-esteem is an internal, subjective index or marker of the extent to which we are included or looked on favorably by others |
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Term
| self-evaluation maintenance model |
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Definition
| a model that maintains that we are motivated to view ourselves in a favorable light, and that we do so through two processes: reflection and social comparison |
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Term
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Definition
| a theory that holds we strive for stable, accurate beliefs about the self because such beliefs give us a sense of coherence |
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Term
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Definition
| customary facial expressions, psoture, gait, clothes, haircuts, and bodily decorations, which signal to others important facets of our identity, and by implication, how we are to be treated and construed by others |
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Term
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Definition
| presenting who we actually are, or who we would like others to believe we are |
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Term
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Definition
| attempting to control the beliefs other people have of us |
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Term
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Definition
| who we want others to think we are |
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Term
| public self-consciousness |
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Definition
| our awareness of what other people think about us-our public identity |
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Term
| private self-consciousness |
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Definition
| our awareness of our interior lives-our private thoughts, feelings, and sensations |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency for people to monitor their behavior in such a way that it fits the demands of the current situation |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency to engage in self-defeating behaviors in order to prevent others from drawing unwanted attributions about the self as a result of poor performance |
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Term
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Definition
| the statements we make that we intend to be taken literally |
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Term
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Definition
| indirect and ambiguous communication that allows us to hint at ideas and meanings that are not explicit in the words we utter |
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Term
CH 6 - Social Influence
social influence |
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Definition
| the myriad ways that people impact one another, including changes in attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behavior, that result from the comments, actions, or even the mere presence of others |
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Term
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Definition
| changing one's behavior or beliefs in response to explicit or implicit (whether real or imagined) pressure from others |
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Term
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Definition
| responding favorably to an explicit request by another person |
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Term
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Definition
| social influence in which the less powerful person in an unequal relationship submits to the demands of the more powerful person |
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Term
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Definition
| the phenomenon whereby merely thinking about a behavior makes its actual performance more likely |
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Term
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Definition
| the nonconscious mimicry of the expressions, mannerisms, movements, and other behaviors of those with whom one is interacting |
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Term
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Definition
| the apparent motion of a stationary point of light in a completely darkened environment |
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Term
| informational social influence |
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Definition
| the influence of other peolpe that results from taking their comments or actions as a source of information as to what is correct, proper, or efficacious |
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Term
| normative social influence |
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Definition
| the influence of other people that comes from the desire to avoid disapproval, harsh judgments, and other social sanctions (barbs, ostracism) |
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Term
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Definition
| private acceptance of a proposition, orientation, or idealogy |
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Term
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Definition
| agreeing with someone or advancing a position in public but continuing to believe something else in private |
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Term
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Definition
| a norm dictating that people should provide benefits to those who benefit them |
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Term
| door-in-the-face technique (reciprocal concessions tech) |
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Definition
| asking someone for a very large favor that he or she will certainly refuse, and then following that request with one for a more modest favor (that tends to be seen as a concession that the target will feel compelled to honor) |
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Term
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Definition
| adding something to an original offer, which is likely to create some pressure to reciprocate |
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Term
| foot-in-the-door technique |
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Definition
| a compliance technique in which one makes an initial small request to which nearly everyone complies, followed by a larger request involving the real behavior of interest |
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Term
| negative state relief hypothesis |
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Definition
| the idea that people engage in certain actions, such as agreeing to a request, in order to relieve negative feelings and to feel better about themselves |
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Term
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Definition
| reasserting prerogatives in response to the unpleasant state of arousal experienced by people when they believe their freedoms are threatened |
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Term
CH 7 - Attitudes and Persuasion
attitude |
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Definition
| an evaluation of an object in a positive or negative fashion that includes the three elements of affect, cognitions, and behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| a scale used to assess people's attitudes that includes a set of possible answers that has anchors on each extreme |
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Term
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Definition
| the time it takes an individual to respond to a stimulus such as an attitude question |
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Term
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Definition
| an attitudinal function that serves to alert us to rewarding objects and situations we should approach, and costly or punishing objects or situations we should avoid |
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Term
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Definition
| an attitudinal function that enables us to maintain cherished beliefs about ourselves by protecting us from awareness of our negative attributes and impulses or from facts that contradict our cherished beliefs or desires |
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Term
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Definition
| a theory positing that to ward off the anxiety we feel when contemplating our own demise, we cling to cultural worldviews and strongly held values out of a belief that by doing so part of us will survive death |
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Term
| value-expressive function |
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Definition
| an attitudinal function whereby attitudes help us express our most cherished values-usually in groups in which they can be supported and reinforced |
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Term
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Definition
| groups whose opinions matter to us and that affect our opinions and beliefs |
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Term
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Definition
| an attitudinal function whereby attitudes help organize our understanding of the world, guiding how we attend to, store, and retrieve information |
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Term
| Elaboration Likelihood Model |
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Definition
| a model of persuasion that maintains that there are two different routes of persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route |
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Term
| heuristic-systematic model of persuasion |
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Definition
| a model of persuasion that maintains that there are two different routes of persuasion: the systemic route and the heuristic route |
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Term
| central (systematic) route of persuasion |
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Definition
| a persuasive route wherein people think carefully and deliberately about the content of a message, attending to its logic, cogency, and arguments, as well as to related evidence and principles |
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Term
| peripheral (heuristic) route of persuasion |
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Definition
| a persuasive route wherein people attend to relatively simple, superficial cues related to the message or the expertise or attractiveness of the communicator |
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Term
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Definition
| characteristics of the person who deliver the message, including the person's attractiveness, credibility and expertise |
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Term
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Definition
| an effect occurs when messages from unreliable sources initially exert little influence but later cause individuals' attitudes to shift |
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Term
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Definition
| aspects of the message itself, including the quality of the evidence and the explicitness of its conclusions |
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Term
| identifiable victim effect |
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Definition
| the tendency to be more moved by the plight of a single, vivid individual than by a more abstract aggregate of individuals |
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Term
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Definition
| characteristics of the person who receives the message, including age, mood, and motivation to attend to the message |
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Term
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Definition
| the assumption by most people that "other people" are more prone to being influenced by persuasive messages (media campaigns) than they themselves are |
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Term
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Definition
| efforts of the media to select certain events and topics to emphasize, and thereby shape what issues and events we think as of important |
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Term
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Definition
| the hypothesis that more extended thought about a particular issue tends to produce more extreme, entrenched attitudes |
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Term
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Definition
| small attacks upon our beliefs that engage our attitudes, prior commitments, and knowledge structure, enabling us to counter act a subsequent larger attack and be resistant to persuasion |
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Term
CH 8 - Attitudes and Behavior
theory of reasoned action |
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Definition
| a theory that maintains that people's behavior can be accurately predicted by knowing their attitudes toward specific behaviors and their subjective norms |
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Term
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Definition
| people's beliefs about whether others are likely to approve of a course of action |
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Term
| theory of planned behavior |
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Definition
| the successor of the theory of reasoned action that maintains that the best predictors of deliberate behavior are people's attitudes toward specific behaviors, their subjective norms, and their beliefs about whether they can successfully perform the behavior in question |
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Term
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Definition
| a stimulus (word or image) presented to mentally activate a concept, and hence make is accessible |
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Term
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Definition
| a theory that people try to maintain balance among beliefs, cognitions, and sentiments |
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Term
| cognitive dissonance theory |
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Definition
| the theory that inconsistencies among a person's thoughts, sentiments, and actions create an aversive emotional state (dissonance) that leads to efforts to restore consistency |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency to reduce dissonance by finding reasons for why a person has devoted time, effort, or money for something that turned out to be unpleasant or disappointing to the person |
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Term
| induced (forced) compliance |
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Definition
| subtly compelling individuals to behave in a manner that is inconsistent with their beliefs, attitudes, or values, which typically lead to dissonance and often change in their original attitudes or values in order to reduce their dissonance |
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Term
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Definition
| taking stock of one's good qualities and core values, which can help a person cope with threats to self-esteem |
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Term
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Definition
| a theory that people come to know their own attitudes by looking at their behavior and the context in which it occurred and inferring what their attitudes must be |
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Term
| interpersonal simulations |
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Definition
| experiments in which an "observer-participant" is given a detailed description o one condition of a dissonance experiment, is told how a participant behaved in that situation, and is asked to predict the attitude of the participant |
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