Term
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Definition
Lifelong process of learning to become a member of the social world
o Acquire a sense of self or social identity
o Learn about the social grps to which they belong & don’t belong
o Develop into human capacities
o Learn to negotiate the environment that they have inherited
Based on interactions w/ others
Birth to death
Passing on norms, values, & beliefs
Differs by culture & position w/in culture
Creates expectations act behaviors & encourages conformity to these expectations |
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Term
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Definition
| process by which ppl accept the norms, values, beliefs, & language of those who socialize them |
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Term
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Definition
• basic processes of socialization through which a child is shaped into a human being, learns culture, & becomes a member of society
socialization requires a collective memory of those interacting |
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Term
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Definition
| changing perceptions we have of who we are as a result of ongoing socialization |
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Term
| Micro, meso, & macro socialization |
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Definition
Micro: family & friends
Meso: schools & religion
Macro: mass media |
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Term
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Definition
• instruments of communication that reach lg audiences w/ no personal contact betwn those sending & those receiving
o Violence, murders, historically lacks diversity
o “Teen Mom”: misperception that teen pregnancy has increased |
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Term
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Definition
infancy, toddler, preschool
-mainly family
-caretakers should give consistent care & provide protection & support
♣ Cross-cultural variation in early childhood socialization by families
• Supervision varies betwn countries, cities, suburbs, rural areas
• Socialization process varies by race, gender, age, etc.
o Girls vs boys games |
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Term
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Definition
Secondary socialization
♣ Systematic instruction, teachers should be secure & respected
♣ Danger of developing inadequacy & inferiority
♣ Key for identify formation
♣ Formal curriculum: school delivers knowledge & skills to prepare students for world, what students learn in lessons (math, English, etc.), manifest function
• Spelling bee: words & their meanings
♣ Hidden curriculum: rules (dress codes, uniforms different for boys & girls, timeliness, authority to teacher, conformity to rules), latent function
• Spelling bee: there are winners & losers in life, competition is good, learning words & facts is important
• Children learn abt diff kinds of ppl |
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Term
| Elementary schools in different communities |
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Definition
o Schools for working-class students emphasize procedures & memorization
o Schools for middle-class students stress processes involved in getting the right answer
o Schools for affluent students focus on activities in which students express their own ideas
o Schools for the elite work to develop critical thinking skills & applying abstract principles to problem solving
o Also dep on relative position w/in school
♣ Economic, social, & cultural capital |
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Term
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Definition
| ♣ skills, posture, manners, credentials, etc. that one acquires by being part of a social class; creates a sense of collective identity & grp position; source of social inequality |
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Definition
♣ formalized sorting system for students (advanced vs low achievers)
• Can perpetuate inequalities
• Educators believe helpful b/c students have access to more indiv attn.
• Conflict theory: self-fulfilling prophecies
• Fairness: “Yes” if based on academic performance… but testing can be unfair; No if teacher bias about motivation, race, gender, SES, etc |
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Term
| Adolescence socialization |
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Definition
• peer influence on self-concept formations
o We pick friends who are like us & become more like our friends
o Active search for identity
o May overidentify w/ unrealistic heroes & exclude ppl who are different |
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Definition
• learning of specific expectations associated w/ new roles
o Young adults form close & intimate bonds with others & work productively
o Middle aged guide & care for others & objects
o Elders accept their life & feel comradery w/ others |
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Term
| Functionalist theory of socialization |
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Definition
• Interprets socialization as key to social stability bc est shared roles & values
o Sanctions as punishment for lack of conformity
Resocialization maintains stability in society |
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Term
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Definition
• existing social roles are radically altered or replaced
o Breaking w/ behaviors & thinking that are unsuited to changing circumstances
o Acquire new roles, shed old roles, integrate new roles w/ current roles
o Can take place in organization that maintains strict social control & demands indiv conform to needs of group (imposed)
♣ Total institutions: isolation from society (nursing homes, prisons, etc.)
♣ Ex. Religious conversion, brainwashing, Stockholm syndrome
o Voluntary: having children, medical school, etc.
Successful when ppl look forward to change, don’t feel forced, & feel accomplishment
Functionalist theory |
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Term
| symbolic interaction theory of socialization |
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Definition
People construct the self as they interact w/ envir & give meaning to their experience
-Looking glass self
-Mead childhood socialization in 3 stages |
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Term
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Definition
Charles Cooley
♣ We imagine how we appear to others
♣ This impacts our actions
♣ Pride/shame based on perceptions that might not be true
Self-concept, faulty perception, truth, consequence
symbolic interaction theory |
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Term
| 3 stages in childhood socialization |
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Definition
George Mead
o based on role-taking (stepping into another person’s shoes, helps acquire sense of self)
♣ Preparatory/imitation: <=2 yrs , imitate w/o knowing meaning
♣ Play: role-taking, voluntary spontaneous activity w/o formal rules, pretend to be significant others (ppl/characters who are important in kid’s life, greatly influence child’s self-evaluation & way of behaving), age 2-6
♣ Game: aware of position in society, structured organized activities involving multiple ppl, established roles & rules, learn to establish rules & simultaneously understand roles of all participants & see how their role fits in the system of expectations, learn to organize behavior around the generalized other (expected behaviors & meanings that transcend the ppl participating, imaginative), age 7+
♣ To role-take kids must learn meaning of significant symbols (gestures that convey same meaning to ppl transmitting & receiving them, must interpret meaning before responding)
♣ “me” is social self that has internalized the rules for behavior, “I” is the active & creative self that may act in unconventional ways
symbolic interaction theory |
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Term
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Definition
• Those who pass on social expectations, transmitters of culture
• Informal or formal
Primary & secondary |
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Term
| primary agents of socialization |
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Definition
o Groups share a distinct identity, feel belonging, & interact
o Primary: social group central to one’s sense of self & have strong emotional ties to
o Family, military unit, peer group
♣ Family gives deepest & earliest experiences w/ relationships & rules of life
♣ Environment & how to respond
♣ May buffer or exacerbate stressful environments |
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Term
| Micro, meso, & macro agents of socialization |
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Definition
o Micro: family
o Meso: social class, media, social networking
o Macro: transnationalism |
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Term
| conflict theory of socialization |
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Definition
• Inequalities based on diff socialization processes
o Gender inequalities based on raising boys & girls differently
o Private vs public school
o Women as caretakers
• Social class: wealth, power & prestige rankings that indiv hold in society
o Leads to stratification
o Brings abt diff socialization processes
o Meso-lvl
• Socialization & career
o Ex. More men chefs
♣ Female roles given to men when transferred to professional setting
♣ Charismatic authority |
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Term
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Definition
• Heredity (genetics) vs. social environment (ex. experiences) effects on indiv characteristics
o Generally accepted that both have influence
twin studies & isolated children
• In school A grades important to high-status peer group-> high IQ kids get better grades
o In school B grades unimportant to status-> high IQ kids get worse grades than A
• Nature: genetically inherit physical, personality, intelligence, & preference traits from parents
o For middle class children, genes were a big determinant of future success
• Nurture: parents, teachers, & friends determine who we are
o Identical twins often grow up w/ diff personalities & preferences
o For children in poverty, intelligence genes could not overcome negative impact of envir on future success
are gender differences nature or nurture (games, careers, etc.) |
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Term
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Definition
o Twins have same genetic makeup
o If intelligence is different, we assume tiny differences in envir.
o Twins adopted by different families
o Adopted siblings
o 2 twins named James were separately adopted at 1 month old but had same interests, preferences, & behaviors
o 2 twins- Oskar and Jack- adopted at 6 months to Catholic Nazi Germany & Jewish Caribbean, but had similar speech, thought patterns, preferences, & behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
• Combination of nature & nurture
• Envir can modify our genes (on/off)
o Lifestyle determines which genes get switched on/off
o But some genes are not modifiable
• “epi” = “above/on top of”
• Epigenetic changes can be passed from one gen to another, but are dynamic & reversible
• Why more people with allergies?
o Envir is changing
o Can coat DNA
• Not nature vs nurture, but nature AND nurture |
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Term
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Definition
• have lived away from human contact from a very young age
o Genie
♣ Growing up & living in a social environment teaches us many things
♣ Orphanages stunt children physically and developmentally
Kids need to develop strong ties & mutual expectation w/ a caring adult |
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Term
| Asch conformity experiments |
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Definition
| objective facts can’t withstand grp pressure |
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Term
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Definition
• deviant behavior justified by grp pressure
o Experimenter urges participant to keep going
o Subject administers shocks
o Fake test subject pretends to feel pain |
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Term
| Standford prison experiment |
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Definition
• roles of inmate & prison guard easily accepted
o Subjects who were guards abused their power |
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Term
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Definition
• can be so pervasive that it adversely affects grp decision making & often results in poor grp decisions
• Risky shift & polarization shift |
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Term
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Definition
• Emphasis on efficiency, calculability, predictability & control in industry
• Expense of individual creativity, dehumanization ("iron cage of rationality)
applied to bureaucracies
-division of labor
-hierarchial authority
-written rules
-positions filled on objective criteria
-procedures & activities recorded in standardized format
-authority belongs to the position, not the person
-staff treat clients w/ apathy
drive for profit |
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Term
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Definition
• Socially constructed & changes throughout time
• Violation of social norms
• Not all deviant behaviors are treated equally (mental health crime vs. motivated crime)
o Sexual crimes not prosecuted the same
o Race difference in marijuana prosecution
• Not inherent in any act, appearance, or behavior
o Some societies see breastfeeding in public as deviant
• Formal & informal social control mechanisms protect against
• Sociology emphasizes social context in which behavior/appearance is defined as deviant
Something considered deviant at 1 time & place may not be at another |
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Term
| past explanations of deviance |
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Definition
o Psychology: some ppl prone to commit acts (risk-seeking, PTSD, etc)
o Biology: “bad blood”, genes, “asymmetry of face… large lips… excessive wrinkles”
♣ Pseudoscience “experts” asserted that blacks had facial features that proved them to be less civilized & intelligent; and that Jews were deceitful
Religion: God’s will, witchcraft, possession |
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Term
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Definition
• form of deviant actions for which there are formal penalties imposed by the government
o Inaccurate crime stats used as explanation for greater social controls (ex. Police)
♣ More incarceration despite dec. crime rate
♣ Race, gender, religion, mental illness, addiction-> looking for more crime in certain groups, so find more crime (Conflict Theory)
♣ Public perceptions about crime in USA don’t align w/ data (overestimate)
♣ Terrorism & fear-> minorities
• Chance of being killed by terrorist attack is v small, but widely discussed
• Used as way to explain social controls |
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Term
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Definition
| o crime in which members of society generally agree on seriousness of certain crimes |
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Term
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Definition
o Predatory: dangerous & violent, most feared in society
o Victimless: committed betwn consenting adults
♣ Prostitution, gambling, drugs, drunkenness
♣ May not be prosecuted if they are not disruptive
o Hate: motivated by bias against race, religion, disability, ethnicity, or sexual orientation
♣ Often under-reported
♣ Hate crimes- or their reporting- have increased in last several yrs
o Organized: ongoing criminal enterprises by organized grp for economic gain
♣ Mob, trafficking, etc.
o Occupational/White Collar: legal violation committed in course of legitimate, respected occupation or financial activity
♣ Pilfering, worker neglect, wage theft, etc.
o Terrorism: planned use of random unlawful violence or threat of violence against civilians to create fear & intimidation to advance political or ideological goals
♣ Anarchist, state-sponsored, nationalist, religious |
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Term
| 5 rationales for crime punishment |
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Definition
| retribution, rehabilitation, deterrence, protection, restoration |
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Term
| Differential association theory of deviance |
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Definition
• Symbolic interaction, micro-lvl
• Process of learning deviant behavior from ppl you interact with
• 4 factors: duration, intensity, frequency, priority
• Interacting with people who break rules will socialize you to break rules
• Issue: deviance is not always a willful act (mental illness), and not all who associate w/ deviants become one |
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Term
| Labelling theory of deviance |
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Definition
• Explains how people can be labeled as deviant, which can lead to person carrying out more acts that reflect the label
• Self-fulfilling prophecy
• Primary (isolated violation) & secondary (repeated violation) deviance
Pseudo-patient put into mental hospitals
expectations influence behavior, can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies |
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Term
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Definition
labelling theory
• Pseudo-patient put into mental hospitals & diagnosed with schizophrenia “in remission”
o 8 “normal” ppl admitted to psychiatric hospitals claimed to staff that they were hearing voices of an “existential nature” saying “hollow” or “thud”
♣ chosen b/c no reports of existential psychoses in literature
o Staff didn’t detect their sanity, even though they were supposed to act normal
♣ Some patients detected
♣ Normal behaviors interpreted as abnormal b/c of diagnosis
o Are “insane” & “abnormal” objective labels? Or arise from external environment?
o Rosenhan
o In reverse study, staff were told that pseudo patients were coming even though none
♣ Staff falsely identified several pseudo patients |
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Term
| social control theory of deviance |
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Definition
Functionalist approach, macro-lvl
Processes a society/grp uses to ensure conformity to norms & expectations
• Anomie (Durkheim) is state of normlessness that occurs when rules for behavior break down after rapid change
• Hirschi
attachment to friends/family/community, commitment to future goals, beliefs, & involvement support conforming behaviors |
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Term
| Strain theory of deviance |
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Definition
• Functionalist approach, macro-lvl
• Opportunities or limitations embedded in structure of society may contradict & undermine the goals & aspirations society encourages, creating strains that lead to deviance
• Conformity, innovation (accepts cultural goals but not means), ritualism (means, not goals), retreatism (neither), rebellion (neither)
• Merton
• Societies provide ppl w/ clear life goals/ends-> not everyone has means to achieve-> pressure to conform & succeed leads to deviant acts-> some are deviant bc they are responding to the social situation
• Criticisms: Is crime a “lower class” phenomena?, Can’t explain “expressive crimes, weak empirical support, Why do ppl “adapt” to strain in diff ways? |
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Term
| conflict theory of deviance |
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Definition
• Powerful grps in society control the criminal justice system
• Law making is an attempt by powerful ppl to coerce others into their own mortality
• Nixon domestic policy chief: hippies against war & racism-> associated hippies w/ weed & blacks w/ heroin-> criminalize heavily-> disrupt communities
• Powerful grps in society control the criminal justice system
• Law making is an attempt by powerful ppl to coerce others into their own mortality
• Nixon domestic policy chief: hippies against war & racism-> associated hippies w/ weed & blacks w/ heroin-> criminalize heavily-> disrupt communities
weapons bias (self-paced vs snap-judgement conditions)
different criminal justice systems in USA for rich & poor |
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Term
| rational choice theory of deviance |
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Definition
• Cost-benefit analysis of one’s choices of deviance or conformity
• Punishment: high cost to dissuade criminal behavior-> fines, prison, death
• Assumes ppl make choices in relation to goals, that they anticipate the outcomes of alternative courses of actions & calculate costs/benefits, & that they choose the alternative most likely to give greatest satisfaction |
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Term
| social learning theory of deviance |
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Definition
• All behavior is learned
• People “learn” to engage in crime from peers, families, etc.
• Criminal behavior brings approval & status that reinforces behavior
o Justifications, attitudes, awards, & punishments
• Association w/ other criminals is one of highest indicators of likelihood to commit crime
• Develop belief structure that favors crime
• Modelling: ppl imitate or model behavior of those around them, esp. if they admire them
• Bandura: experiment to see how kids mimic adults
o Adult in room “abuses” toys-> adult leaves room-> kid abuses toys |
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Term
| routine activity theory of deviance |
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Definition
| • Likely offender, suitable target, & absence of capable guardian have physical convergence in time & space that leads to crime |
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Term
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Definition
self= perceptions about who we are
-developed from perceptions about how others respond to us in interactions
-biology & sociology both contribute
-looking glass self
-we play in active role in trying to shape how other see us
-shaped by socialization
-varies by time, space, social location |
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