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study of human behavior in society
empirical discipline relying on careful observations
coined by Auguste Compte 1838
scientific study of social life, social change, and social causes & consequences of human behavior |
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distinguish between personal troubles & societal issues
relationship between individual life & larger social factors
troubles privately felt
issues affect many people & have origins in institutional arrangements & societal history |
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Levels of analysis of social surroundings
We are influenced by historical & structural events outside our everyday lives
Without socially shared expectations, life would be chaotic
Social structure: stable patterns of interactions, statuses, roles & organizations that provide societal stability
Social units: interconnected parts
Environment: setting where units operate
Social Process: actions of people and institutions |
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| Quantitative & Qualitative methods |
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Different questions asked & methods used
quan=numbers
qual=words |
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| methods of data collection |
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content analysis
survey
interview
focus group
participant observation |
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| independent/dependent variables |
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Dep: conclusion trying to draw, Y, outcome var
Indep: factors believe to be important to conclusion, Y, manipulated variable
Vars: concepts/ideas that change |
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| Vegetarians are less likely than non-vegetarians to have a BMI greater than 30 |
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micro: psycho-social relationships, soccer team
meso: in-between, IFC
macro: systems of societal function, NATO, UN |
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Common experiences, culture, solidarity, shared histories/experiences
Social system w/ identifying social facts as patterns of behavior
Organized & interdependent group of individuals who live together in a specific geographical area & thereby interact more w/ e/o than outsiders |
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Complex & elaborate system of meaning & behavior that defines way of life for group/society
Shared, learned, taken for granted, symbolic, emergent, variable
Shared language, knowledge, material objects, and behavior
Way of life of a people |
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Norms: rules of social behavior that guide every situation, may be formal/informal, when violated-> social sanctions
Beliefs: strongly shared ideas abt nature of social reality
Conceptions that people accept as true about how the world operates & where the individual fits in relationship to others
Values: abstract concepts in society that define worth of diff things/ideas (ex. independence)
General, shared conceptions of what is good, right, appropriate, important with regard to conduct, appearance, and states of being |
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System of social ties that connects people to one another & to society
Mechanical
Older, agricultural, similar religious beliefs, family values
Organic
Post-industrial/industrial, labor division |
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Ideal: practices, beliefs, values regarded as most desirable (American dream)
Real: way things are actually done (lack of mobility is SES) |
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Sub: differ slightly from dominant, conform to most norms, diff religions in US, diff race/ethnic grps (Judaism in USA)
Counter: do not share many values w dominant, extremists, amish, punk (vs pop) |
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| cultural relativism vs ethnocentrism |
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Relative: considers another culture’s point of view & values differences
Centrism: views all other cultures in relation to own, loyalty to one’s own culture, uniformity, conformity to social norms |
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| concerns of each of 5 theories |
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1. Functionalism: equilibrium, latent function, no power dynamics
Shared public value, each part of society (social structure) serves a function
How parts of society contribute to and disrupt social order
2. Conflict: competing forces, dominant vs marginalized, inequality
Society organized around unequal distribution of resources & held together through power & coercion
3. Symbolic interaction: meaning to symbols, everything socially constructed, evolving meanings
Role of individual in giving meaning to social behavior to create society
4. Feminist: women & equality
Purpose of improving women’s lives
5. Rational choice/exchange: self- interest, cost-benefit
Transaction-based |
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Models of brain thinking & learning
Focused: concentrated, focus intently on subject continuously, fully alert
Concentration of ideas in same regions of your brain
Diffuse: relaxed, subconscious thinking, sleeping/jogging/etc.
Opens up ideas from other regions of brain, broadens mind |
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coined sociology
Scientific knowledge needed to understand society’s problems
positivist discipline
Observation, experimentation (test hypotheses), comparison, historical research (systematic analysis) |
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| knowledge is based on natural phenomena observed by senses & interpreted through reason & logic |
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| anything humans create that influence behavior, responses, and thinking in certain ways |
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| events that influenced sociology |
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colonialism (exposure to other cultures), industrial & french revolutions (how can dramatic change be systematically explained, mechanization), advances in natural sciences (how to apply scientific method to social world)
european enlightenment |
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privately felt
Resolution lies in changing the individual (motivation, attitude, etc.) |
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affect many ppl & have origins in institutional arrangements & societal history
Outside of an individual’s control (widespread unemployment) |
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all day-to-day activities from birth to death in a person’s life
Shaped by remote & impersonal social forces |
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“what is going on in the world & what may be happening within themselves”
sociological imagination |
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| stable patterns of interactions, statuses, roles & organizations that provide societal stability |
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interconnected parts
Environment: setting where units operate |
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| actions of people and institutions |
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Overemphasis on credentials (ex. College degrees) for social status & job qualifications
As more people meet qualifications, employers increase requirements
Functionalist perspective: logical response to increasing complexity of jobs & desire to do jobs better
Reinforcing loop of employers sorting applicants, employees getting higher degrees
Conflict perspective: way to keep people lower in social hierarchy from taking positions of those higher
Gatekeepers get rich charging fees for licensing & exams |
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Ability to see societal patterns that influence individual & group life
Social & historical context of issues |
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Look to origins of actions & ideas to reveal patterns & processes that shape observed social behavior
Sociological research can show that “common sense” ideas are not always true |
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Collective generational learning & capacity for language helps us dominate
Environment/social world can trigger genes
Solitary confinement is a torturous punishment |
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Actions people take in response to others
Max Weber emphasized forces that motivate people to act |
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| forces that motivate people to act |
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Traditional: past
Affectional: emotion
Value-rational: valued goal, way people go about achieving a goal is valued just as much as the goal itself
Instrumental-rational: valued goal is pursued by efficient means w/o considering the moral implications/consequences of the actions taken to reach the goal |
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“Sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity”
DuBois
Two souls/identities (black American)
Color line: barrier supported by customs & laws separating whites from non-whites, especially in division of labor |
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Firsthand knowledge gained by living & working among those being studied, reinforces common connection of people, caring & empathetic moral actions
Jane Addams
“Social work”
Ex. look at relatively low-cost technologies driving globalization that can empower the underserved |
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| Locality embraces, adapts to, or resists a product, idea, or behavior that they face during globalization |
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Ever-increasing flow of goods, services, money, people, technology, information, & cultural items across national borders
Intensified by digital technologies
Uneven global exchange
Transnational & global corporations control life-sustaining resources, national boundaries
Experienced differently depending on who, when, where
McDonalds, Starbucks |
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exchange of products
Columbian Exchange: Europeans learned new ideas & products, Native Americans obtained new animals & faced deadly diseases |
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principles of fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more sectors of American & global societies
Efficiency, calculability, predictability, control
Education: max results w/ min effort, dehumanization, less relationships
Irrationality of rationality |
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Secondary data collection
media , studies, news, etc. |
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Sample size, open or closed ended questions
Likert Scale: “strongly disagree, neutral, agree, etc.” for questionnaires
Self-administered questionnaire |
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| Common in product development, usually recorded |
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Watching, listening, recording in real time
Join a group & assume role of group member
Hawthorne effect: subjects alter behavior when they learn they are being observed |
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| Population, study population (target/accessible population), sampling frame (how you get access), sample (what is in the study) |
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Needed for inferential statistics
Non-random can be used for exploratory research
Doesn’t necessarily guarantee representativeness |
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| process of sociological research |
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Design (?, variables) -> Plan (methods, sample) -> analyze
Define problem - operationalize (measurable & observable)
Review literature - source credibility
Hypothesize - variables, causal/correlational
Research design - depends on population/sample & question
Collect data
Analyze - reliability (consistency in measurement, increases w/ sample size) & validity (precision in measuring exactly what was intended to measure)
Conclusion
Future research
Share |
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| variables correlated b/c each influenced by a 3rd factor |
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| clear, precise instructions about how variables are observed or measured |
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| associated with both variables, researchers hold constant so they can focus on just the relationship between independent & dependent |
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Psycho-social relationships
Interpersonal
Local organizations
Symbolic Interaction
Rational Choice/Exchange Theory
Soccer team
Class, professor-student interaction, study group, university, department |
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In-between
Organizations & institutions
Ethnic groups within a nation
IFC
State boards of education, National Education, Association, Islamic madrassas or Jewish yeshiva school systems |
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Systems of societal function
Nations
Global community
Structural-Functionalism
Conflict Theory
NATO, UN
Educational policy & laws
World literacy programs |
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| specific responses/practices of cultures, specific ways to handle things |
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| internal bodily sensations that we experience in relationships with other people, when to express certain feelings |
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| norms that specify appropriate ways to express internal sensations, how to express certain feelings |
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| linguistic relative hypothesis |
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| “no two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality”, different languages = different interpretations |
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| norms that apply to daily life (eating, greeting, etc) |
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| essential to well-being of group (public nudity, etc) |
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| folkaways, mores, formal, informal |
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American ideology: democracy, individualism, liberty, justice, equality
Koreans believe that it is acceptable for young children of both sexes to bathe with women in a public bathhouse |
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American dream & focus on self -> individual freedom, material wealth, self-reliance
Americans value individual, Koreans value group |
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“community”, cohesion based on friendship & loyalty
Hunter-gatherer, pastoral/horticultural, agrarian
Food production is basis for social/cultural functions |
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“society”, cohesion based on complexity & differentiation
Emphasis on production of goods (industrial) or information & services (post-industrial)
Better standard of living, technology, self-fulfillment, individual rights |
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| most powerful group in society (Christians in USA) |
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| idea, invention, or cultural item is borrowed from a foreign source |
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| strain of transnational encounters; dep on how much differ, level of preparation, & circumstances |
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| culture shock in reverse upon returning home after living in another culture; dep on reason for being in host culture, time, extent of immersion in host culture |
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| one society defines another’s culture as so intolerable that they attempt to destroy it |
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| home culture regarded as inferior, idealize other cultures as utpoias |
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| stated & intended goals of social behavior (ex. schools) |
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| indirect & unintended consequences |
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functionalism
How social categories to which people are assigned bind or fail to bind them to others and society
Egoistic: weak ties, detachment
Altruistic: strong ties, sense of self can’t be separated from the group
Anomic: ties are disrupted due to dramatic changes in social circumstances (economic circumstances)
Fatalistic: ties involve oppressive discipline, no chance of release |
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| way people have organized interaction & activities to achieve some valued goal (care for sick, pass on knowledge) |
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conflict theory
Bourgeoisie & proletariat had great divide, arose from capitalism from Industrial Revolution, finance aristocracy |
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| explanation to justify the existing social arrangement that downplays the possibility that the arrangement advantages some groups over others |
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| meanings attached to things |
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| disapproval that discredits one’s claim to a normal identity |
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| everyday encounters in which people communicate, interpret, and respond to one another’s words and actions |
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object to which people assign a name, meaning, or value
Language, cultural anchors (broad consensus about importance) |
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| sum of existing expectations and newly negotiated ones |
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| series of images can be analyzed from viewpoint of different observers |
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| evolution of societies & gender relations |
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Hunter-gatherers: few possessions, small groups, well-being of whole group, no inheritance, women relatively equal
Herding & horticultural: some possessions, increased group size, food surplus, material inequalities & power hierarchies
Agrarian: men owned land, patrilineal inheritance, feudal system, social classes
Industrial: urbanized employment, less women in labor force, workplace masculinized & home feminized, bilateral inheritance, wage labor
Post-industrial: move away from traditional wife/mother roles, legal changes gave women autonomy, education, globalization |
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Testing avoids illusion of fluency & helps thicken & connect concepts in memory
Better retention, identifies knowledge gaps (Feynman technique), better organization of knowledge, metacognitive monitoring, etc.
Illusory fluency created by highlighting, rereading, receiving an outline, passive listening
Repeated exposure & focused practice helps w/ learning & skills
Priming device |
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