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- Auguste Comte
- Emile Durkheim (France)
- Karl Marx (Russia)
- Max Weber (Austria)
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- the systematic study (scientific approach) of human societies giving special emphasis to modern, industrialized systems.
- this science came into being as a way to understand huge changes (capitalism, social changes in Europe) that have occurred in human societies over the past 2 or 3 centuries
- try to detach oneself as far as possible from preconceived ideas about social relationships
- study of society, human/group life
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- tried to make sociology into a chemical table to find cause -effect relationships
- eventually discovered people were too complex
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- Macro = broad social organizatio, economics
- Micro = social interaction w/self or triads
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- study of culture
- historically, studied more traditional societies
- sociology focused on western, modern societies
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- big political, economic changes, and huge advances in technology
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- Ethnography, quantitative methods (surveys)
- Peer reviewed journal article
- theoretical overview
- scholarly overview
- opinion
- memoir
- fiction
- semi-autobiographical
- case studies
- journalism
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- Paradox of sociology
- individuals <--->how society organized
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| Science of Social Research |
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Definition
- Empirical character
- obsercation
- measurements
- variation-replication of observations
- Logical/rational character of science
- patterns/associations among variables
- independent/dependent variables
Theory development: - Theory defined
- role of theory in research
- types: inductive vs deductive
- causality vs relationship
Scientific model - observations
- empirical generalizations
- theories
- hypotheses
- testing of hypotheses... accept/reject
Rationality How rational is science Science as an activity - Scientific paradigm
- "knowledge" ontology, epistemology, methodology
- pre-eminent models - positivism, postpositivism, constructivism
- Scientific practice -- merton's norms of
- Universalism
- Communism
- Disinterestedness
Organized Skepticism Realism / Relativism / Subtle Realism |
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| Berger LONG VERSION ignore |
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- examines empiricist model
- Sociology = attempt to understand, not a practice
- scientific, methodologies
- understanding group life, relationships
- Soc = a consciousness
- multiplicity of meanings
- broad, open view of human life
- self-consciousness vs societal consciousness
- Exercise in selective perception
- recognize our place in history
- redefining past
- Perspective of human in society
- awareness of place in society
- born into particular context that shapes us
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- concerned with understanding society
- many layers to social reality
- i.e. house on outside.. what's on inside?
- sociological perspective:understand what's going on behind closed doors
- concerned about the way people know and the rules of evidence and knowledge employed
- concerned with describing social reality in a clear and precise fashion
- has primarily theoretical interest
- interested in understanding for its own sake
- MORE
- data alone doesnt make sociology as a whole
- sociology is full of jargon
- detached objective observers is limiting method
- institutions, social fact = structure
- ideologies (agency)
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| Functionalism/structural functionalism |
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- macro-level
- striving for equilibrium, if something is established, stays over time, must be good
- System of interrelated parts that is relatively stable based on widespread consensus as to what is morally desirable
- each part has functional consequences for the operation of society as a whole
- Looks at: How is society integrated? major parts? how parts interrelated? consequences of each one for operation of society
DURKHEIM |
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- macro-level
- system characterized by social inequalit, each part of society benefits some categories of people more than others
- conflict based social inequality promotes social change
- Looks at: how society is divided, what are patterns of social inequality, how do some try to keep status, how do others challenge
- MARX (Anthony Giddens, Lewis Coser)
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- Micro level
- An ongoing process of social interaction in specific settings based on symbolic communications
- individual perceptions of reality are variable and changing
- Looks at: How is society experienced, people interactions that make social patterns,how we shape reality, how meaning constructed/maintained
- WEBER (George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer)
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- macrolevel/microlevel
- society is characterized by post-industrialization, consumerism, and global communications
- these bring into question existing assumptions about social life and the nature of reality
- Looks at: what is reality? what are axes of power? how do power and knowledge intersect?
- STEVEN SEIDMAN
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Mills + Sociological imagination |
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- see complexity of interrelationships
- self in society
- individual trouble vs. societal issue
- biography/history
- to understand society, must understand individual, vice versa
- know place within history, aware/ know lives of others
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- Functionalist
- Primary social structures
- ex: family
- religion
- education
- polity (govt)
- economy
- look at stability, cohesiveness as natural order of things
- society is bigger than parts
- differentiation = structures come from other structures
- SOCIAL FACTS = social structure
- social settings influence our behavior
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- Social conflict
- conflict theory
- Groups/individuals competing for scarce resources
- power, privilige, resources = main sources of conflict
- capitalism
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- conflict theorist, not in Marxist sense
- Symbolic interactionist
- conflict more than economically driven, it is about status
- comparative historian, philosopher
- we are dependent on cultural meanings/values which are idiosyncratic but we all share
- these meanings can change
- No pure reality, we are constantly making it
- objectivity: can't be fully objective because we are subjective
- we all have values, meaning systems, etc, and we must use them
- Theory: cannot have fixed science,social group life is too complex
- "Verstehen" to understand
- stability and social order maintained through social interactions
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- symbolic interactionist
- 1930s, scholar in U.S. Univ. of Chicago
- pragmatism- uniquely American
- new that we behave with intention
- we look to what is practical
- orientation to world
- SOCIAL SELF
- self = social phenomenon
- developed
- socialization
- make object of self
- mind/body split
- in the mind, but not the physical mind
- construct meaning
- refutes behaviorism (stimulus-->response)
- thought humans more complex
- reacted/rejected Freud, who argued there are unconscious drives
- WE are conscious beings, pragmatic, think, intentions
- objects, subjects. We can be objects to ourselves, have discussions with ourselves
- reflexive language
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- ethnomethodology(dramaturgy) symbolic interactionist
- impression management
- presentation of self
- we are conscious beings, we govern how we act around others, impressions, roles
- we are always better at perceiving than acting
- perceiving - interpreting
- managers - impressions - actors
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- "looking glass self"
- we take in what others think of us
- start to act what we are labeled?
- labeling theory-->Goffman, Rosenhan
- early 20th century, preceded Goffman
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- student of Mead
- coined term symbolic interactionism
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- On Being Sane in Insane Places
- pseudopatients in psych hospital
- study was empirical, participant obeservation
- also deceptive, not replicable
- Determined: normality was a relative term
- labeling theory
- once placed in mental hospital, couldnever escape label
- may even start to take on qualities of label
- led to deinstitutionalization
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- Culture
- embedded in society
- norms, religion, beliefs, transpersonal
- language
- ideational
- Society
- shared political state
- technological development
- dominant language
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judging another culture by one's own cultural standards -imposing values on others |
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- family (patriarchal) values
- religion
- animism(belief that there are spirits)
- ancestor worship
- economy = subsistence agriculture
- technology = physical labor (human/animal)
- kinship groups
- polity is hierarchical, tribal, patriarchal
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- characterized by:
- changing family form
- monotheistic
- technology =industrial, use of fossil fuels
- capitalism/communism
- surplus production
- education formal
- democratization
- breakdown of church authority
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Kluckholm 3 definitions of culture |
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- "Way of thinkin, feeling, believing. It is group's knowledge stored up in the memories of men and women, books, and objects for future use.
- storehouse of pooled learning of a group of people... provides meaning to physical world
- legacy we acquire from group from which we are born
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Clifford Geertz definition of culture |
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- "Webs of meaning we weave"
- focused on interaction
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Ann Swidler definition of culture |
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- "toolkit of practices, knowledge, and symbols"
language |
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