Term
| Helen Keller said being ___ is worse than being ___ because why? |
|
Definition
| Being deaf is worse than being blind because isolated from people |
|
|
Term
| Pressure changes in air/water caused by movements/vibrations of an object |
|
Definition
| Physical definition of sound |
|
|
Term
| Experience we have when we hear |
|
Definition
| Perceptual definition of sound |
|
|
Term
| If tree falls in forest and no one is there to hear, does it make a sound? |
|
Definition
| depends on how we define 'sound' |
|
|
Term
| speaker's diaphragm moves out so pushes surrounding air molecules together, increases molecule density near diaphragm, so increased air pressure |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| speaker's diaphragm moves back in, so air molecules spread out to fill in, decrease in air pressure |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| pattern of air pressure changes; speed through air is what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| occurs when pressure changes in air happen in sine wave pattern; examples |
|
Definition
| pure tone; whistles, high-pitched notes (flutes), tuning forks, lab computers |
|
|
Term
| size of pressure change (or difference in pressure between high and low peaks in sound wave) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| unit of sound converting large range of sound pressure into more manageable scale (logarithmic scale) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| reference value in micropascals because pressure near threshold of human hearing |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| indicates using standard pressure of 20 micropascals in calculation |
|
Definition
| sound pressure level (SPL) |
|
|
Term
| referring to decibels or sound pressure of sound stimulus |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| number of times/cycles per second pressure changes repeat |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| frequency is inverse of what? |
|
Definition
| wavelength (so it's 1/wavelength) |
|
|
Term
| physical measure of our perception of pitch, with higher _____ associated with higher pitches |
|
Definition
| frequency; higher frequencies associated with higher pitches |
|
|
Term
| frequency is indicated by ____, which is 1 cycle per second; humans can perceive __ to __. |
|
Definition
| hertz (hz); 20 hz to 20,000 hz |
|
|
Term
| irregular (not sine) waveform that still repeats, which makes it a periodic tone--examples? |
|
Definition
| complex tones; musical instruments (except tuning forks) |
|
|
Term
| repetition rate of a complex tone |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| consist of a number of pure tones, so we can actually "build" a complex tone using additive synthesis (several sine-save components added together) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| additional pure tones to the fundamental frequency with a frequency that's a multiple of the fundamental |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of harmonics for fundamental of 200hz |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| closely related to amplitude (which is the physical property of sound wave--this is the perceptual property of sound wave) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| extremely loud level of decibels |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| closely related to frequency, only this is perceptual experience not physical property |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| notes with the same letter sound similar |
|
Definition
| tone chroma--although have different tone height |
|
|
Term
| perceptual experience of increasing pitch with tone's increased fundamental frequency |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| notes with same chroma have _________ that are multiples of one another, which results in similar perceptual experiences |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| we can hear from ___hz to ___hz, but are most sensitive to ___ - ___ |
|
Definition
| 20 to 20,000; most sensitive to 2000-4/5000 |
|
|
Term
| indicates threshold for hearing determined by free-field presentation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| distinguishes between two tones with same loudness, pitch, and duration, but still qualitatively different (like flute and bassoon) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| buildup of sound at beginning of tone vs. decrease in sound at end of tone |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sounds with sound waves that don't repeat in orderly fashion--examples |
|
Definition
| aperiodic sounds (without periodicity); slamming door, human speech, radio static |
|
|
Term
| structures that stick out from sides of head; help us determine location of sounds |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| outer ear consists of ___ and ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| separation between outer and middle ear |
|
Definition
| eardrum / tympanic membrane |
|
|
Term
| three smallest bones in body; all together called ___ |
|
Definition
| ossicles; malleus/hammer, incus/anvil, stapes/stirrup (MIS or HAS) |
|
|
Term
| what does stapes/stirrup transmit vibrations to? |
|
Definition
| oval window (EMISO--eardrum, malleus, incus, stapes, oval window) |
|
|
Term
| snail-like structure that can uncoil into tube, filled with liquid/fluid that helps us maintain balance |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sense of balance in liquid-filled cochlea |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hair cells -- receptors for hearing |
|
|
Term
| where sound acts to produce electrical signals; protrude from tops of hair cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| control gates for ion transmission into hair cells, and control signals they send to brain |
|
Definition
| tiplinks; delicate structures, bad if they snap but can repair themselves if not too much damage |
|
|
Term
| states that frequency of sound is indicated by place along cochlea where nerve firing is highest (where on the cochlea it's stimulated) |
|
Definition
| bekesy's place theory of hearing |
|
|
Term
| frequency of sound (and its perceived pitch) = related to what? |
|
Definition
| place along cochlea that's sending strongest signals to brain, with high frequencies going to base and low going to apex |
|
|
Term
| who used cadavers to see where cochlea stimulated? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| orderly map of frequencies along length of cohclea |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ability to hear sound is decreased by presence of other sounds |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| masking effect spreads more to ___ than to ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why does bekesy's experiment need updating? |
|
Definition
| human cochlea are more sensitive than those of cadavers |
|
|
Term
| elongating motion of outer hair cell (because of cilia bending) leads to amplifying effect, which is important if outer hair cells are destroyed but inner ones are left intact |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| property of firing at same place in sound stimulus; so rate of bursting of auditory nerve fibers provides info about frequency of sound stimulus |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of conductive hearing loss |
|
Definition
| blockage of sound from reaching receptors (like ear wax) |
|
|
Term
| examples of sensorineural hearing loss |
|
Definition
| damage to hair cells, pathways to brain, auditory nerve, or brain |
|
|
Term
| "old hearing"--most common form of ___ hearing loss |
|
Definition
| presbycusis; sensorineural; loss of sensitivity, greatest at higher frequencies, affected by loudness in environment |
|
|
Term
| loud noises can break tiplinks can cause degeneration of hair cells, damage to organ of corti |
|
Definition
| noise-induced hearing loss |
|
|
Term
| ____ carries signals from inner hair cells away from cochlea toward _____ in the cortex |
|
Definition
| auditory nerve; auditory receiving area |
|
|
Term
| trace pathway from cochlea to cortex (SONIC MG) |
|
Definition
| SON (superior olivary nuclei) IC (inferior colliculus) MG (medial geniculate nucleus |
|
|
Term
| describe the hierarchical processing of the auditory areas |
|
Definition
| signals first processed in the core (activated by simple sounds like pure tones) and then areas outside the core (higher areas) that require more complex sounds (several frequencies, human speech) |
|
|
Term
| compare what/ventral and where/dorsal streams for hearing |
|
Definition
| what/ventral = identifying sounds; where/dorsal = locating sounds |
|
|
Term
| give examples of how auditory cortex is shaped by experience |
|
Definition
| can train monkeys to respond best to 2500hz; musicians have 25% more cortex activated when responding to piano tones |
|
|
Term
| experienced when you perceive objects located at different positions based on their sounds |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ability to locate objects in space based on their sound |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 dimensions of auditory space |
|
Definition
| azimuth (left/right), elevation (up/down), distance (of sound source from listener) |
|
|
Term
| best creatures at sound localization? worst? |
|
Definition
| best = blind mole rat, pocket gopher (subterranean so don't use vision); worst is elephant |
|
|
Term
| difference in when sound reaches left and right ears; best for what frequency sounds? |
|
Definition
| interaural time difference (ITD); best for low-frequency sounds |
|
|
Term
| based on difference in sound pressure level of sound reaching both ears, since head is barrier that reduces intensity of sounds reaching far ear; best for what frequency sounds? |
|
Definition
| interaural level difference (ILD); high frequency sounds (so ILD is NOT L, it's H) |
|
|
Term
| head interferes with sound waves if high-frequency, creating ___ on other side of head |
|
Definition
| acoustic shadow (this is for ILD) |
|
|
Term
| places of ambiguity in discerning sound location, because all these points have same ___ and ___ |
|
Definition
| cone of confusion; same ILD and ITD |
|
|
Term
| ILD and ITD do NOT indicate what? |
|
Definition
| elevation--just indicate azimuth (left/right) |
|
|
Term
| primary monaural cue; info for localization contained in differences in distribution/spectrum of frequencies that reach ear from different locations |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ are important for determining ELEVATION, thanks to ______, especially at ___ frequencies |
|
Definition
| pinna; thanks to spectral cues; especially at higher frequencies |
|
|
Term
| there is evidence for narrowly tuned ITD neurons, which means what? |
|
Definition
| neurons respond best to specific ITD because neurons in inferior colliculus and superior olivary nuclei (SON IC) respond to narrow range of ITDs |
|
|
Term
| broadly tuned ITD neurons = idea that...? |
|
Definition
| neurons in right hemisphere respond best when sound coming from left and vice versa, so location of sound is indicated by ratio of responding from these two types of broadly tuned neurons |
|
|
Term
| ____ tuned ITD neurons are similar to distributed coding since info in nervous system is based on pattern of neural responding |
|
Definition
| broadly tuned ITD neurons |
|
|
Term
| 3 auditory cues for distance |
|
Definition
| sound spectrum (high-frequency sounds dampened more by air as travel); loudness (farther away = quieter); motion parallax (think of moving sirens) |
|
|
Term
| how do owls locate sound sources? |
|
Definition
| ear asymmetry, so as sound elevation gets lower, ITD gets longer and ILD gets bigger |
|
|
Term
| ben underwood = an example of what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| overall, sound sources --> ____, where many properties are combined into one complex sound --> ___, where leads to image perception of auditory image --> guess of sound source; this is called __________ |
|
Definition
| cochlea, then brain; auditory scene analysis |
|
|
Term
| perceptual streaming of sounds in auditory scene; perceptual segregation of sounds |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ability to / process of separating stimuli produced by each source in scene into separate perceptions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| give examples of principles of auditory grouping (like heuristics that help us perceptually organize elements of an auditory scene) |
|
Definition
| onset time, location, similarity of timbre and pitch, proximity in time, auditory continuity (stay constant or change smoothly), past experience (melody you know) |
|
|
Term
| what is the name of sounds that reach your ears after bouncing off walls, ceiling, floor? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sound appears to originate from lead speaker when lead and lag speakers play sound separated by fractions of second; we perceive sound as coming from source that reaches our ear first |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| study of how sounds are reflected in rooms |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 forms of studying acoustics in concert halls |
|
Definition
| intimacy time (time between when sound arrives directly from stage and when first reflection arrives); bass ratio (ratio of low frequencies to middle frequencies reflected from walls and other surfaces); spaciousness factor (fraction of all sound received by listener that's indirect sound) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| level of teacher's voice in dB minus level of background noise in room |
|
|
Term
| feeling pressure, vibration, stretch, texture, hardness, shape--the "traditional" view of touch |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| feeling warm/cool/hot/cold |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| feeling pain, usually caused by damaging stimulus |
|
Definition
| nociception (think 'noxious') |
|
|
Term
| itch/desire to scratch because of uncomfortable sensation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| feeling pleasure from being touched |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sensing body's movement in space |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 different forms of energy transduced by touch receptors |
|
Definition
| mechanical (pressure), thermal (temperature from outside), chemical (histamines, rash, itch) |
|
|
Term
| made up of cutaneous senses (responsible for perceptions like touch and pain), proprioception, and kinesthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| compare/contrast visceral receptors and cutaneous receptors |
|
Definition
| visceral = located internally (internal organs, muscles), cutaneous (located in skin) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| epidermis (dead skin cells), dermis (below epidermis), subcutaneous (below dermis) |
|
|
Term
| skin receptors that end in a capsule |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| skin receptors that don't end in a capsule |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what do firing rates look like for slowly adapting nerve fibers compared to rapidly adapting? |
|
Definition
| slowly = firing when pressure applied and as long as it's applied; rapidly = fires when applied, adapts rapidly and stops sending APs, then fires agin when pressure is taken off |
|
|
Term
| what do free nerve endings do? |
|
Definition
| provide info about most additional somatosensory modalities: thermoreceptors, nociceptors, pruritoceptors, pleasure receptors...; connected to CNS by nerves |
|
|
Term
| four types of skin receptors |
|
Definition
| merkel receptor/disc, meissner corpscle, ruffini cylinder, pacinian corpuscle (MMRP) |
|
|
Term
| close to skin surface, near epidermis; fires continuously; senses fine details |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| close to skin surface, near epidermis; fires only when applied and removed; controls handgrip |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| located deeper in skin, responds continuously, perceives stretching of skin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| located deeper in skin, responds when stimulus is applied and removed; senses rapid vibrations and fine texture |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the two skin receptors that are slowly adapting (fire whole time); the two that are quickly adapting (fire when applied and removed) |
|
Definition
| slow = merkel receptor/disc, ruffini cylinder; fast = meissner corpuscle, pacinian corpuscle |
|
|
Term
| two receptors close to skin surface |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of intraneural microstimulation |
|
Definition
| can stimulate nerve fiber with electrode--causes perception of stimulation at location of neuron's receptive field |
|
|
Term
| two major pathways along spinal cord for nerve fibers to cortex |
|
Definition
| medial lemniscal pathway (large fibers sensing proprioception and touch), spinothalamic pathway (smaller fibers for temperature and pain) |
|
|
Term
| where most fibers synapse for skin receptors; in thalamus |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| body map of somatosensory cortex; where receive most brain area? (cortical magnification factor) |
|
Definition
| homunculus; thumb, lips, fingers |
|
|
Term
| how are cortical body maps examples of experience-dependent plasticity? |
|
Definition
| increasing stimulation of specific area of skin causes expansion of cortical area receiving signals from that area of skin |
|
|
Term
| ability to detect details on the skin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| classical method of measuring tactile acuity (ernst weber) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| newer method of measuring tactile acuity |
|
Definition
| grating acuity (grating orientation threshold); see narrowest spacing you can correctly judge orientation |
|
|
Term
| main sense associated with each: Merkel, Meissner, Ruffini, Pacinian (MMRP) |
|
Definition
| details, handgrip, stretching, vibrations/texture (DHSV or DHST) |
|
|
Term
| Many ___ receptors in fingertips, since most sensitive to details |
|
Definition
| Merkel (like Steve Erkel is attentive to details?) |
|
|
Term
| in perceiving texture, compare/contrast spatial and temporal cues |
|
Definition
| spatial = caused by relatively large surface elements (bumps, grooves); temporal = skin moves across textured surface to sense fine textures |
|
|
Term
| duplex theory of texture perception |
|
Definition
| two types of receptors involved in texture perception; perception of COARSE textures determined by spatial cues (details, merkel), perception of FINE textures determined by temporal cues (vibrations, pacinian) |
|
|
Term
| touch in which person actively explores object w/ fingers and hands |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| perception in which 3D objects are explored with hand |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when touch stimuli are applied to skin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| unimodal versus polymodal free nerve endings |
|
Definition
| respond only to one type of stimulus (heat, chemical, pressure cold) vs. fire in response to more than one type of stimulus |
|
|
Term
| warm/cool temperatures = ____; painfully hot/cold = ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| receptors that respond to noxious temperatures are called __ __ __ channels |
|
Definition
| transient receptor potential (Trp) |
|
|
Term
| what responds to chili peppers? what is this chemical called? |
|
Definition
| Trpv1 channels; capsaicin |
|
|
Term
| noxious stimulus causes more pain than normal, like putting hot stimulus on sunburnt skin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| normally innocous stimulus causes pain, like touch (which normally doesn't hurt at all) on sunburnt skin hurts pretty badly |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| inflammatory pain vs. neuropathic pain |
|
Definition
| inflammatory = tissue damage and joint inflammations or tumor cells; neuropathic = caused by lesions or damage to nervous system |
|
|
Term
| examples of direct pathway model of pain |
|
Definition
| pain can be affected by person's mental state, can occur when there's no stimulation of the skin, can be affected by a person's attention |
|
|
Term
| pain signals enter spinal cord from body and then transmitted to brain |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 different types of fibers that transmit pain (proprioceptive, tactile, thermo/pain/itch signals) |
|
Definition
| a alpha, a beta, a delta, c fibers |
|
|
Term
| fibers that convey proprioceptive info; really thick, lots of myelin/insulation/schwann glial cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| fibers that convey touch information; thick, with lots of myelin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| fibers that convey temperature, pain, and itch; convey sharp pain; smallish diameter, thinly myelinated |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| fibers that convey temperature, pain, itch; dull, achy pain; thin diameter; signal travels quite slowly; NO myelin/insulation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| first pain that's sharp and quick, a delta; then less but longer second pain, c fibers |
|
|
Term
| why do we need two kinds of pain (double pain)? |
|
Definition
| sharp pains warn us of danger, so we can react quickly -- aching pain makes us take it easy so we can heal |
|
|
Term
| response to a continuing or repeated noxious stimulus that builds up over time, like holding something hot that feels worse and worse over time |
|
Definition
| wind-up, but ONLY with aching pain and NOT with sharp pain |
|
|
Term
| one pain can inhibit the transmission of another pain elsewhere on body |
|
Definition
| DNIC: diffuse noxious inhibitory controls |
|
|
Term
| what's the purpose of DNIC? |
|
Definition
| brain identifies most immediate threat and tunes out pains that aren't as capable of harming you |
|
|
Term
| how can you eliminate the pain-relieving effects of opioids? (like morphine, oxycontin) |
|
Definition
| naloxone; blocks opioids from activating pain inhibitory circuitry; increases pain by blocking endorphins or morphine |
|
|
Term
| if you give naloxone before giving placebo, what happens? |
|
Definition
| blocks placebo effect from occurring; suggests that placebos work by engaging endogenous opioid system (endorphins) |
|
|
Term
| variety of brain areas activated by pain |
|
Definition
| pain cortex; somatosensory cortex, prefrontal cortex... |
|
|
Term
| what area of the brain is important for determining unpleasantness? |
|
Definition
| acc (anterior cingulate cortex) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| congenital insensitivity to pain with anhydrosis; inherited disorder in which can't feel pain or thermal sensations |
|
|
Term
| "gatekeeper" function of taste and smell |
|
Definition
| identify things the body needs for survival and should be consumed, and detect things that would be bad for the body and should be rejected |
|
|
Term
| constant renewal of olfactory and taste receptors |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| animals--having keen sense of smell is important to survival; cues to orient in space, mark territory, guide to specific places or food sources, sexual reproduction |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| humans--having less keen sense of smell that isn't crucial to survival |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| help control function of our immune systems; should be attracted to those of different ones |
|
Definition
| MHC genes (major histocompatibility complex genes) |
|
|
Term
| why can dogs smell better than we can? |
|
Definition
| same sensitivity of olfactory receptors, we just have far fewer |
|
|
Term
| concentration at which quality (not just presence) of odor can be identified |
|
Definition
| recognition threshold (not just detection threshold) |
|
|
Term
| dime-sized region in nasal cavity with olfaction receptors, just below olfactory bulb |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in mucosa; dotted with molecules called olfactory receptors that are sensitive to chemical odorants |
|
Definition
| olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) |
|
|
Term
| each ORN expresses only one type of ____; how many types? |
|
Definition
| receptor (similar to color vision, where 3 different types of cone receptors and brain compares relative activity to tell you what combination of wavelengths of light are out there); 350 |
|
|
Term
| ____ (in the OB) receives signals from ORNs after receptor activation in mucosa; each ___ receives signals from how many ORNs of a particular type? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 types of papillae; which doesn't have taste buds? |
|
Definition
| filiform (cone shape; over entire surface); fungiform (mushroom shape; tip and sides); foliate (folds along back on sides); circumvilliate (flat mounds, back) |
|
|
Term
| papillae (except filiform) have ____, each of which has ___ |
|
Definition
| papillae (except filiform) have taste buds, each of which has 50-100 taste cells |
|
|
Term
| another name for distributed coding of taste--quality is signaled by pattern of activity distributed across may neurons, not just one or a few tuned to respond to specific quality |
|
Definition
| across-fiber patterns; taste cells are broadly tuned, so each cell has receptors for multiple tastes |
|
|
Term
| another name for specificity coding--receptors responding specifically to particular taste (bitter, sour, umami) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| substance that blocks flow of sodium into taste receptors but doesn't affect neurons that respond best to combination of salty and bitter tastes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| specificity (labeled-lines) or distributed (across-fiber) coding of taste? |
|
Definition
| centrally = distributed/across-fiber, periphery = specificity/labeled-lines |
|
|
Term
| why is taste indirect like color vision? |
|
Definition
| nothing inherently "sweet" about sugar molecules--stimulation of receptors that respond to chemicals with certain structures |
|
|
Term
| taste + smell; what else? |
|
Definition
| flavor; texture, temperature, level of hunger, vision |
|
|
Term
| lack of ability to taste sweet, bitter, sour, umami, salt |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| most cortical focus of flavor perception |
|
Definition
| OFC / orbitofrontal cortex |
|
|
Term
| compare tasters, supertasters, and nontasters |
|
Definition
| tasters = can taste PTC; supertasters = can taste PTC and PROP; nontasters = can't taste either |
|
|
Term
| if you're a supertaster (and can taste PROP and PTC), you're more sensitive to what? |
|
Definition
|
|
