Term
| Affective Filter Hypothesis |
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Definition
| A hypothesis for measuring how affective variables will affect how receptive a learner is to comprehensible input. Comprehensible input will not be processed in the Language Acquisition Device if a learner has a high affective filter. (Krashen, 1982). However most researchers consider the concept of the affective filter vague and atheoretical. (Ortega, 2009, |
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Definition
| The loss of all or part of an L1 by an individual or community. Age of acquisition may affect attrition. |
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Term
| Backsliding/U-shaped curve |
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Definition
| In the early stages of language learning a learner coincidentally uses native like forms, meaning the learner does not truly understand the functions and meanings. Then the learner appears to undergo a process of attrition, due over generalization and other factors, NOT attrition. Finally, the learner produces more native-like forms consciously with attention to function and meaning (Sharwood, Smith, Kellerman, 1989 in Ortega, 2009, p. 118). Called "restructuring' in Information-Processing theory (McLaughlin, in Mitchell & Myles). |
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Definition
| Input data that is slightly above a learner's current level, i + 1 (Krashen, 1985, in Ortega, 2009, p. 59). |
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Definition
| A cognitivist approach that likens the brain to a computer. Based on the idea that learning occurs through repeated activations of neural networks. Learning occurs through an associative process (patterns), not abstract rules. When connectionism is applied to SLA, the idea is that learners are sensitive to co-occurance of language forms and make predictions (Mitchell & Myles, 2004, p. 121.). |
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Term
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Definition
Lado (1950s) A school of thought that a structure-by-structure comparative analysis of the L1-L2 will predict when negative transfer occur. Assumed that the L1 is the source of errors in the L2, so the greater the difference between the L1 and L2, the more errors (Stockwell et al., 1965 in Ortega, 2009, p. 31-32).
But more recent empirical evidence suggests that this is not the case (Zobl, 1980 in Ortega, 2009, p. 32).
SLA - Spring 2010 W3S13-21 - Sauro |
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Term
| Critical Period Hypothesis |
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Definition
The hypothesis that there is a biologically specified period of time early in life when the brain is pre-programmed to learn language (Lenneberg 1967 in Ortega, 2009, p. 12-13). Seems true for L1 acquisition through cases of children who were deprived of language like Genie (Curtiss, 1977, although not conclusive). The evidence for a Critical Period is less conclusive for L2 acquisition, as noted in studies of older language learners who gain near-native-like competence in an L2 (see Ioup, 2005 in Ortega, 2009, p. 14-16). Birgsong (1999) says that there is a limited developmental period to acquire any language and once that opportunity has passed the ability to learn language declines.
CPH also ties into Universal Grammar access, or lack thereof (Mitchell & Myles, 2001, p. 84)
AoA - Age of Acquisition, immersion (largest predictor for ultimate attainment).
AoE - Age of Exposure, classroom (not a strong a predictor)
LoR - Length of Residence
(Birdsong, 2006)
SLA - Spring 2010 W4S8 - Sauro |
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Term
| Error Analysis (Performance Analysis) |
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Definition
The systematic investigation of L2 learner's errors and compares learner production data to L2 (Corder, 1967, in Mitchell & Myles, 2004, p. 38). Error analysis showed through empirical research, that most learner errors were not from L1 transfer (Ellis, 1985, in Mitchell & Myles, 2004, p. 38). Gass and Selinker (2001) developed a process for examining and cataloging learner errors. Problems with Error Analysis are accounting for avoidance, overuse of some forms and underuse of others (Ortega, 2009, p, 40).
SLA - Spring 2010 - W3S24-26 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
A form of corrective feedback in the middle of the implicit-explicit continuum, in which an interlocutor repeats a learner's utterance with a corrected form of the error (Ortega, 2009, p. 72).
S: He go to the store.
T: He goes to the store.
Mackey (1999) discovered that recast is the most common type of feedback, although it often does not lead to positive uptake. |
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Term
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Definition
Corrective feedback is a pedagogical form of negative feedback because it has the intention of correcting errors in a learner's utterance. From a cognitive-interactionist perspective, CF may occur as part of negotiation of meaning or form (Ortega, 2009, p. 71). CF occurs on a continuum from implicit (no attention to a specific error) to explicit (attention to specific error) (Ellis and Sheen, 2006, in Ortega, 2009, p. 74). Corrective/Negative is beneficial for learning (Long, Lyster, Russell & Spada in Ortega, p. 72). Lyster & Ranta (1997) also delineate different types of learner uptake. Noticing Hypothesis states that for learning to occur, second language learners must attend to and notice details and differences between the target language and their production or knowledge of the target language. (Schmidt, 1990).
Written feedback (Ferris, 2006) direct/indirect feedback. Some propose the teachers should correct every error, and others say that you should avoid spending class time on feedback (Truscott). |
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Term
| Developmental (learner) Readiness |
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Definition
| A learner will not be able to acquire a structure before they arrive at that developmental stage. Teachers should follow order of acquisition and teach to the next level as noted in the Teachability Hypothesis (Pienemann, 1984, 1989 in Ortega, 2009, p. 138). Studies by Mackey (1999) and Spada & Lightbrown (1999) support this hypothesis through analysis of acquisition of English question formation. Learner typically follow the same developmental route. However rate of acquisition is dependent on a variety of factors including age and L1 (Zolb, 1982 in Ortega, 2009, p. 35). |
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Term
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Definition
A type of implicit corrective feedback that non-specifically asks for a speaker to negotiate for meaning when intelligibility is low.
Ex. What? Sorry? Come again? |
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Definition
| The order of the stages that learner acquire the L2. While the developmental stages are usually acquired in the same order (route), the rate at which learners progress through these stages is different. The rate shows the progress of the developing the IL (Ortega, 2009, p. 119-120). |
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Term
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Definition
| An explicit form of corrective feedback that overtly focuses on the form at fault and clearly indicates that some part of the utterances is non-target like (Ortega, 2009, p. 71). |
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Term
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Definition
A form of corrective feedback in the middle of the implicit-explicit continuum, that prompts an interlocutor to attempt an utterance against
How do we say x?
Can you say that again?
(Ortega, 2009, p. 72). |
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Term
| Developmental Sequence for Negation |
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Definition
1) "No/not" in front of verb. Ex. I no like.
2)"Don't" alternates with "no/not", not inflected for person, # , or tense. Ex. He don't like it.
3) Negative placed after auxiliary. Ex. She can no sing.
4) "Do" inflected for person, #, and tense. Ex. She doesn't like it.
SLA - Spring 2010 W8S25 - Sauro |
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Term
| Developmental Sequence for Question Formation |
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Definition
1) Single word or chunk phrase with rising intonation. Ex. "Like?" "How are you?"
2)Declarative word order with rising intonation. Ex. It is raining?
3) "Wh-/Do" fronting, but no subject-auxiliary inversion. Ex. Where the cookie is?
4) Inversion w/ "wh-" and copular "be" Ex. Where is the cookie?
5) Inversion with 'do' and others. Ex. Are the men baking cookies?
6) Complex questions (embedded, negative, tag)
Lightbrown & Spada (1999), p. 79
SLA - Spring 2010 W8S26-27 - Sauro |
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Term
| Developmental Sequence for Expressions of Temporarily |
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Definition
1) Pragmatic (She steal bread/and run away from shop.)
2) Lexical (Then the car of the police come, yesterday she go home).
3) Morphological (She cried).
Ortega, 2009, p. 126.
SLA Spring 2010 W8S28 - Sauro |
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Term
| Developmental Sequence of Morpheme Accuracy Order |
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Definition
1) -ing, plurar -s, "be" copular.
2) "be" auxiliary, a/the
3) Irregular past
4) Regular past, 3rd person -s, possessive -'s.
Ortega, 2009, p. 125
SLA Spring 2010 W8S29 - Sauro |
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Term
| Explicit Learning/Teaching |
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Definition
Teaching and learning with attention, intention, and awareness of rules, metalinguistic features, and forms.
Krashen's Learning/Acquisition Hypothesis. Norris & Ortega (2001) in a synthesis study of other studies, found that explicit instruction was more effective.
ExplicitFonF > ExplicitFonFS > ImplicitFONF > ImplicitFonFS
Long (1983) reviewed 12 studies comparing implicit (naturalistic) and explicit (instructional) learning. He discovered that instruction was beneficial for adults and children and for different levels of proficiency.
SLA - Spring 2010 W14S4-11 - Sauro
See Fundamental Difference Hypothesis |
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Term
| Implicit Teaching/Learning |
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Definition
Language learning as incidental learning while doing on something else, without focus on rules. Reber (1996) pioneered the artificial grammar research paradigm in which learners we asked to memorize strings of letters, while implicitly extracting rules and regularities. Krashen's Learning/Acquisition Hypothesis
Orgeta, 2009, p. 99-100 |
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Term
| Fundamental Difference Hypothesis |
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Definition
| The acquisition undergone by children and adults is different because children have the innate ability to intuit the L1 grammar (implicit learning), but adults, having lost this ability, resort to problem-solving and conscious attention in order to learn an L2 (Bley-Vroman 1990 in Ortega, 2009, p. 24). |
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Term
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Definition
The final outcome of second language acquisition. (ens state, final state, steady state, asymptote).
SLA - Spring 2010 W4S17 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
Long (1999) suggests just in time language teaching that consists of form-flooded communication activities. Engagement with meaning before occasional shifts of attention to linguistic forms during meaningful communication. FonF may be necessary to push learners to more target-like forms faster. FonF activities include enhanced text, dictogloss, dictowatch, grammar games, and corrective feedback. Can be proactive (plan ahead) or reactive (waiting for the need to arise). Norris & Ortega (2001) in a synthesis study of other studies, found that explicit instruction was more effective.
ExplicitFonF > ExplicitFonFS > ImplicitFONF > ImplicitFonFS
SLA - Spring 2010 W13S10-15 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
| The specific and explicit grammar rule instruction. Translation drills and focuses on formal aspects of language. F |
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Term
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Definition
(Han, 2004) The phenomenon of non-progression of learning (plateau) despite continuous exposure to input, adequate motivation and practice (Selinker, 1972 & Han, 2004, p. 13 in Ortega, 2009, p. 134).
Han (2004) offers two levels of fossilization - cognitive (processes in the brain)and empirical (stabilized forms in output).
SLA - Spring 2010 W4S27 - Sauro
Information processing perspective, some forms may have have been automatized too early.
CPF- decline in acquisition ability (Birdsong)
Brain deterioration
Local (specific part) v. Global (whole interlanguage) |
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Term
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Definition
The myriad of individual difference include:
-Affect/Anxiety - Krashen, Affect Filter Hypothesis.
-Aptitude (p. 149) MLAT, High scores predict success in explicit instruction classroom environment.
-Motivation - Assumes that individuals who are motivated will learn another language faster and to a greater degree. Statistical analyses point to motivation as a strong predictor of success (second to aptitude). Flawed because motivation is not consistent and self-reflection motivation is unreliable.
-Memory - Better working memory leads to higher L2 acquisition (Miyake, Friedman & Osaka, 1998).
-Sociocultural difference - language norms, social norms about learning/eduction, language use and learning. |
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Term
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Definition
(McLaughlin (1987, 1990) A cognitive model that likens the brain to a computer. It focuses on the brain's ability to process information and that the brain is a limited capacity processor. A learner can only process a certain amount of information at once in his or her short-term memory (controlled processor). But once the information is stored in long-term memory through repeated activation, it become automatic. Learners consistently restructuring interlanguage. Once information is automatic, the STM is available for new information. Access is the activation or use of knowledge through automatic or controlled processing (automatic vs. manual car metaphor). Representation (knowledge) vs. access (processes).
(Mitchell & Myles, 2003, p. 99-100). |
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Term
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Definition
In response to Krashen's Input Hypothesis, Long (1985, 1996) claimed that input alone is not sufficient for language acquisition. He proposed that the best kind of input was input that was interactionally modified when one interlocutor signals that the message is not fully understood. Interactional modifications a.k.a. negotiation of meaning include clarification requests, confirmation checks, and comprehension checks and elicit negative feedback (Ortega, 2009, p. 60-61 and Mitchell & Myles, 2003, p. 167).
SLA - Spring 2010 W6S16 - Sauro
Empirical Studies
Pica (1987) found that interactionally modified input lead to more understanding than pre-modified input. |
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Term
| Language Acquisition Device |
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Definition
Posited by Chomsky and described as a component or wiring of the brain responsible for process language input and acquiring knowledge about the language. A language dedicated module in the brain (Ortega, 2009, p. 111). Naturalistic learning. Response to behaviorist that believed leaning came from imitation. Chomsky questioned how children could create novel sentences if they were merely imitation. This led to Chomsky's idea for Universal Grammar. There is dissagreement as to whether or not learners have access to UG and the LAD in learning of a second language.
1) No access to LAD or UG after a critical period, language learning must be done through other processes.
2) Full access means that one has access to LAD and UG principle and reset or turn on parameters.
3) Partial access means that one can only implement the parameters that are already in one's L1. |
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Term
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Definition
The psychological process whereby prior learning is carried over into a new learning situation (Gass & Selinker, 2001). L1 knowledge interacts with UG developmental forces, but does not override them. Positive transfer is facilitation and negative transfer is interference (Ortega, 2009, p. 53).
SLA - Spring 2010 W3S13-15 - Sauro |
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Term
| Hierarchy of Difficulty (Contrastive Analysis) |
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Definition
Correspondence - L1 and L2 forms are similar.
Coalescing - L1 has two forms, L2 has one.
Absent category - no L2 equivalent of L1 form.
New category - no L1 equivalent of L2 form.
Differentiation - L1 has one form, L2 has two.
(Stockwell, et al. 1965) |
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Term
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Definition
The relative rarity of a language feature across the world's languages. Unmarked features are more common, and marked features are rare (Ortega, 2009, p. 37). Markedness Differential Hypothesis (Eckman, 1977) marked forms tend to be more difficult to learn (Ortega, 2009, p. 38).
SLA - Spring 2010 W3S19-20 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of Krashen's Natural Approach, learning has only one function, which is to monitor and make changes in forms of utterances after it has been produced by the acquired system. Monitor is thought to alter the output of the acquired system before or after the utterance is made. Utterance is initiated entirely by acquired system (McLaughlin, 1987, p. 24, in Mitchell & Myles, 2004, p. 46). |
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Term
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Definition
| The desire to initiate L2 learning and the effort employed to sustain it, and quantitatively deemed high or low (Ortega, 2009, p. 168). Motivation nurtures more successful L2 learning, but L2 success boosts motivation. Motivation is central, but cannot be reduced to a few variables. Need more studies that grasp the complexity of motivation (Ortega, 2009, p. 189). Motivation is the second most accurate predictor of L2 success. |
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Term
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Definition
Noticing refers to the process of bringing some stimulus in to focal attention (Schmidt, 1994 in Mitchell & Myles, 2004, p. 184) Based on a study of his own learning, Schmidt claims that in order to learn L2, learners must notice relevant material in the linguistic data available. Noticing refers to the brain registering the new material with some awareness at the point of encounter that there is something new, even if there is no understanding of how the new element works (Schmidt, 1995 in Ortega, 2009, p. 63). For learning to occur, second language learners must attend to and notice details and differences between the target language and their production or knowledge of the target language (Schmidt, 1994 in Mitchell & Myles, 2004, p. 185).
SLA - Spring 2010 - W8S17 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
The delivery of forced output that is precise, coherent, and appropriate. Hypothesis states that producing the target language may be the trigger that forces the leaner to pay attention to the means of expression need to successfully convey his or her own intended meaning (Swain, 1985, p. 249 in Ortega, 2009, p. 62).
1) Noticing/triggering
2) Hypothesis testing
3) Metalinguistic Reflection |
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Term
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Definition
Language is a tool for thought or mediation (not interaction) in mental activity (Lantolf, 2000 in Mitchell and Myles, 2004, p. 194). Self-regulation is autonomous functioning, and other regulation is guidance from the more skilled interlocutor, grounded in Vygotsky. Scaffolding is the process of supportive dialogue which directs the attention of the learner to key features of the environment. Microgensis is contextualized and localized learning processes.
Object > Other > Self Regulation
Explicit/Implicit feedback on a regulatory scale (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994, in Mitchell & Myles, 2004, p. 211). |
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Term
| Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) |
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Definition
| The distance between what a learner (novice) does with assistance from an expert and what they can do independently (Vygotsky). |
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Term
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Definition
| Principles apply to all human language and parameters are language specific. Came up with the Minimalist Plan that claimed that learning a language is all lexical, and grammar is learned by changing binary parameters in function words. |
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Term
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Definition
Language Related Episode - a learner initiated discussion of language form in which learners discuss the language they're producing, question their language use, correct themselves or others (Swain & Napkin, 1998).
SLA Spring 2010 - W7S16 - Sauro |
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Term
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Definition
| Language that is actually internalized (Krashen). |
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