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SCMH 1013
Final Exam Chapters 16,17,18,19&20
90
Science
Undergraduate 1
04/30/2013

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Term
Solar System
Definition
consists of the major planets, satellites of the planets, and other objects that are gravitationally bound to the Sun (comets, minor planets including asteroids, and interplanetary dust).
Term
Nebulae
Definition
clouds of dust and gas, which can form stars and their solar systems
Term
Hadean Period
Definition
early melting of the crust due to heating upon contraction of the early planet (4.6 to ~ 4.0 b.y. ago)
Term
Heavy Bombardment
Definition
continued accretion of planetesimals in the form of meteors, asteroids, and small planets continually hitting the rocky surface and adding mass and heat to the planet (~4.0 to ~3.0 b.y. ago)
Term
Post-Heavy Bombardment
Definition
development of a stable crust upon which oceans and ice sheets may form after an atmosphere develops around the planet (~3.0 b.y. ago to present); light impacts
Term
Core
Definition
a body about 6,800 km across made mainly of Fe and Ni; temperatures = 5,000oC +; pressures = 3.5 x 109 atmospheres; solid in the interior part and liquid on the outer part; metallic bonds
Term
Mantle
Definition
the bulk of the Earth’s mass; a thick layer around the core consisting of minerals rich in O, Si, Mg, and Fe; much denser than crust; ionic bonds prevail
Term
Asthenosphere
Definition
a thin (~100 km) layer of rock under low enough pressure and high enough temperature to behave as a ductile material; ductile nature allows crustal plates to move upon it; this ductile material deforms under pressure from above
Term
Crust
Definition
a thin (few km to 70 km) layer or shell on the outer part of the Earth; lighter elements are concentrated here (density 2.6 to 3.0 versus 5.52 g/cm3 for the whole Earth)
Term
"Big Splash" Theory
Definition
while still in its Hadean stage of evolution, Earth was struck by a small planet that was in an Earth-crossing orbit about the Sun; the impact of this small body on the early Earth sent huge quantities of mantle material from Earth and the small planet into orbit about the Earth; this orbiting material coalesced into the Moon
Term
Impact Crater
Definition
Mercury, Venus, Mars, and the Moon all show vast numbers of impact craters, large circular pits and basins formed by cosmic impacts; these bodies do not have atmospheres, so weathering and erosion have not removed these scars as has occurred on Earth
Term
Early Hadean Atmosphere
Definition
any gas that accumulated around an inner planet due to gravitational attraction during accretion was probably blown away during the T-tauri phase of the Sun (note: this did not happen with the outer planets, and they probably still have their early atmospheres)
Term
No Atmosphere Phase
Definition
follows the T-tauri phase of the Sun
Term
Outgassing Phase
Definition
volcanoes and fissures bring molten material and gasses to the surface from within the planet; main gasses thus entering the new atmosphere: H2O; CO2; CH4; NH3; H2; this process at a slow pace is continuing today on Earth; on Venus, this is still occurring today
Term
Gravitational Escape Phase
Definition
planets with gravitational attraction that is low and thus allow excited atoms of the upper atmosphere to escape into space (excitation energy exceeds escape velocity); examples: Moon, Mars, Mercury; Earth lost much of its early H and He this way
Term
Oxygen Pollution Phase
Definition
On Earth (maybe Mars long ago), evolution of photosynthetic organisms that produce O as waste gas (beginning about 3.5 b.y. ago) caused a change in the atmosphere: Oxygen build-up began. O level has been rising since 3.5 b.y. ago and today stands at ~ 20%.
Term
Outer Solar System
Definition
The Jovian planets are gas giants
Term
Galilean Moons of Jupiter
Definition
4 large inner satellites, each a small world of its own
Term
Io
Definition
Inner moon, the most volcanically active planet in our solar system
Term
Europa
Definition
the next moon, a ice world with huge fissure cracks in the icy crust; may have a liquid ocean below the ice crust; most probable home of life outside Earth in this solar system
Term
Ganymede
Definition
the third moon from Jupiter, an ice world with a possible ocean below the ice; may harbor marine life as well
Term
Callisto
Definition
the outer large moon of Jupiter, an ice world that is the most heavily cratered body in the solar system
Term
Titan
Definition
a moon so large it is about the size of Mercury; a cloud-shrouded, methane (CH4) ice world with methane lakes and rivers; surface is covered with several meters of organic matter produced by chemical reactions in the atmosphere; visited by a robotic lander in 2004;2700 km in diameter; density = 2.06 g/cm3
Term
Titania
Definition
largest of the 8 major satellites of Uranus; diameter = 1575 km; density = 1.71 g/cm3
Term
Asteroids
Definition
small, rocky, minor planets that orbit the Sun;
Term
Comets
Definition
small, rock bodies coated by ices, which mainly dwell outside the solar system in the Kuiper belt and Oort cloud (beyond Pluto)
Term
Meteoroids
Definition
small fragments (boulders to dust-size grains) that orbit the Sun
Term
Meteors
Definition
a meteoroid that enters Earth’s atmosphere and burns up due to heat of entry causing a bright flash of light in the night sky (velocity = ~ 20 to 70 km/sec); also called “shooting stars”
Term
Meteorites
Definition
any piece of space debris that passes through Earth’s atmosphere and impacts or lands on the surface
Term
Volcanoes
Definition
belts where molten rock (magma) from the upper mantle or lower crust come to the surface (emerging liquid rock is called lava).
Term
Earthquakes
Definition
belts where there are planes of weakness and breakage in brittle crustal rocks; site for potential energy converting into mechanical (seismic) energy or tsunami (seismic sea waves)
Term
Plate Movement
Definition
physical displacement of great segments of the Earth’s crust; can be directly measured using GPS and other technology
Term
Plate Tectonics
Definition
concept that the crust of the Earth is broken up into several (~ 15) large plates, as well as several smaller ones.
Term
Tectonic Plate
Definition
a segment of the Earth’s crust that is a rigid slab of rock ~100 km thick each of which moves on a plastic layer just below it (Earth’s asthenosphere, the upper part of the mantle)
Term
Ocean Floors
Definition
contain volcanic mountain ranges and spreading centers that demonstrate how the ocean floor is formed at mid-ocean ridges and moves away gradually away from these ridges; sediment thickens toward the continents and away from mid-ocean ridges further showing a progressively younger age of ocean floor at the center of the ocean basin.
Term
Paleogeography
Definition
the study of the ancient distribution of lands, seas, and environments.
Term
Pangea
Definition
supercontinent comprised of all land masses that existed about 250 to 140 million years ago.
Term
Divergent
Definition
new plate material (rock) is formed here; site of volcanism, shallow low-magnitude earthquakes, and features formed by tension (pulling apart), for example, rift valleys.
Term
Convergent
Definition
plates come together at a rate of a few cm/yr; crust buckles up to form folded mountain chains (the process of orogeny); sea floor crust is taken back into the Earth (the process of subduction); volcanoes arise from melting during subduction; great earthquakes occur due to break up of crust undergoing subduction; ocean trenches are formed as a result of subduction
Term
Subduction
Definition
the process of taking part of a plate back into the Earth, where the plate is melted and reabsorbed as part of the mantle
Term
Transform
Definition
where plates glide past one another along a great crustal fault zone; powerful earthquakes, but no volcanoes
Term
Focus
Definition
site of initial earthquake motion in the Earth’s crust
Term
Epicenter
Definition
map location on the surface above the focus
Term
Hot Spots
Definition
shallow focus only; weak (low R) but frequent; epicenters are clusters above the Hot Spot area
Term
Convergent Volcano
Definition
unpredictable, violently erupting volcanoes with steep sides (landslide hazards)
Term
Divergent Volcano
Definition
relatively predicable, not generally violently erupting, but they erupt with very hot lavas that spread over large areas; steam explosions on contact with groundwater
Term
Hot Spot Volcano
Definition
much like divergent volcanoes
Term
Earthquake
Definition
powerful earthquakes can be associated with convergent and transform boundaries
Term
Tsunami
Definition
seismic sea waves triggered by earthquakes at sea or submarine landslides; usually affected the coastline on the opposite side of the ocean from the earthquake
Term
Seismology
Definition
study of earthquake vibrations and what they can tell us about the Earth, especially its interior
Term
P-Waves
Definition
waves in which molecules move back and forth in the same direction as the wave moves; fast waves that travel several km/sec through solid rock, liquid, and gasses
Term
S-Waves
Definition
waves in which molecules move up and down perpendicular to the direction of wave motion; slow waves that cannot pass through a liquid or gas (only solid rock)
Term
Evaporation
Definition
liquid water turning into vapor
Term
Sublimation
Definition
Frozen water turning into vapor directly
Term
Transpiration
Definition
Water leaving plant tissue as vapor
Term
Flow
Definition
Water moving as liquid across the land surface
Term
Ocean Currents
Definition
redistribute solar heat in sea water across the Earth; affects Earth’s weather and climate
Term
Gyres
Definition
current systems involving return flow of cold water to lower latitudes; mainly occurs in large ocean basins
Term
Upwelling
Definition
colder deep water flows up at coastalareas due to wind energy pushing surface water away from land
Term
Bottom Currents
Definition
cold water from polar areas thatflows down to sea floor and toward the equator; cold water is colder and more dense
Term
Saltiness of the Ocean
Definition
due to weathering of rocks on land, and transportation of dissolved elements into the sea; saltiness at present level since ~ 3.5 billion years ago
Term
Removal of Salt from the Ocean
Definition
evaporation of sea water causes saturation and then precipitation of salt crystals; organisms in the sea also take up dissolved minerals
Term
Pleistocene
Definition
4 m.y. to present
Term
Pennsylvanian-Permian
Definition
350-250 m.y. ago
Term
Ordovician-Silurian
Definition
460-430 m.y. ago
Term
Proterozoic
Definition
800-600 m.y. ago
Term
Wisconsinian
Definition
75,000-11,000 years ago
Term
Illinosian
Definition
265,000-125,000 years ago
Term
Kansan
Definition
435,000-300,000 years ago
Term
Nebraskan
Definition
1.8 m.y. - 500,000 years ago
Term
Milankovitch Theories of Ice Ages
Definition
Variations in Earth’s rotation and orbit make slight variations in total amount of solar radiation absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere; when all 3 Milankovitch factors work together
Term
Weather
Definition
short term variations in the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place
Term
Climate
Definition
long pattern of weather for a given region
Term
Tropical Storms
Definition
severe storms that start as low pressure systems over warm ocean water; have cyclonic movement; wind 50 to 300 km/hr; requires warm ocean water during northern hemisphere summer
Term
Hurricane
Definition
strong tropical storms of the Atlantic
Term
Typhoon
Definition
strong tropical storms of the Pacific
Term
Tornado
Definition
small scale, violent, rotating funnels of air; winds 300 to 500 km/hr; more common when seasons change
Term
El Nino
Definition
4 to 7 year cycles of weather in Northern hemisphere; due to winds `blowing across the Pacific, which affects water circulation patterns in the Pacific basin causing unusually warm waters in equatorial areas and much rain
Term
La Nina
Definition
the opposite of El Niño (cold waters … dry conditions)
Term
Greenhouse World
Definition
geologic times of high average global temperature
Term
Icehouse World
Definition
geologic times of low average global temperature
Term
Igneous
Definition
rocks that solidified from liquid rock (magma)
Term
Sedimentary
Definition
rocks made of grains and crystals from other rocks; pre-existing rocks must be disintegrated and decomposed (rock weathering) to make materials (sediments) needed to make sedimentary rocks
Term
Metamorphic
Definition
rocks that form by solid-state changes in pre-existing rocks that have been heated and put under high pressure (but not melted)
Term
Ecology
Definition
branch of science that focuses on natural living systems; study of matter and energy of whole natural systems
Term
Ecosystems
Definition
all different kinds of living things in an area (“the community”) plus the physical surroundings of these living things; can be of many scales (sizes)
Term
Producers
Definition
obtain atoms and energy from ecosystems and make organic molecules
Term
Consumers
Definition
sustained by consuming producers
Term
Decomposers
Definition
bacteria, fungi, and others who renew the raw materials of life
Term
Law of Unintended Consequences
Definition
It is virtually impossible to change one aspect or variable of a complex system without affecting other aspects or variables in the system, usually in unpredictable or unexpected ways.
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