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| The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline. |
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| Changes that involve an individual's biological nature. (genes inherited from parents, hormonal changes of puberty and menopause, changes in the brain, in height, in weight, and in motor skills - maturation) |
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| Changes that involve an individual's thought, intelligence, and language. |
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| Changes that involve an individual's relationships with other people, in emotions, and in personality. |
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| A study in which a number of people of different ages are assessed at one point in time, and differences are noted. |
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| Differences between individuals that stem not necessarily from their ages but from the historical and social time period in which they were born and developed. |
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| A study that assesses the same participants multiple times over a lengthy period. |
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| An individual's biological inheritance, especially his or her genes. |
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| An individual's environmental and social experiences. |
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| An individual's genetic heritage - his or her actual genetic material. |
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| A person's observable characteristics. |
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| A person's ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times. |
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| Weeks 1 and 2 of gestation: Begins with conception. After one week and many cell divisions, the zygote is made up of 100 to 150 cells. By the end of two weeks, the mass of cells has attached to the uterine wall. |
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| Weeks 3 through 8 of pregnancy: The rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells develop, and the beginnings of organs appear. In the third week, the neural tube, which eventually becomes the spinal cord, starts to take shape. Within the first 28 days after conception, the neural tube is formed and closes, encased inside the embryo. By the end of the embryonic period, the heart begins to beat, the arms and legs become more differentiated, the face starts to form, and the intestinal tract appears. |
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| Months 2 through 9 of pregnancy: At 2 months, the fetus is the size of a kidney bean and has started to move around. At 4 months, the fetus is 5 inches long and weighs about 5 ounces (Figure 9.1c). At 6 months, the fetus has grown to a pound and a half. The last three months of pregnancy are the time when organ functioning increases and the fetus puts on considerable weight and size, adding baby fat. |
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| Any agent that causes a birth defect. (nicotine, alcohol, rubella, German measles) |
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| Infant born prior to 37 weeks after conception. |
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| A research technique that involves giving an infant a choice of what object to look at. |
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| How thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature. |
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| The way individuals think and also their cognitive skills and abilities. |
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| Famous Swiss developmental psychologist. Developed theory that Cognitive Development has four stages: Sensorimotor Stage, Preoperational Stage, Concrete Operational Stage, Formal Operational Stage. |
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| A mental concept or framework that organizes information and provides a structure for interpreting it. |
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| An individual's incorporation of new information into existing knowledge. (Faced with a new experience, the person applies old ways of doing things.) |
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| An individual's adjustment of his or her schemas to new information. (Rather than using one's old ways of doing things, a new experience promotes new ways of dealing with experiences.) |
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| Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, lasting from birth to about 2 years of age, during which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor (physical) actions. |
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| Piaget's term for the crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched. |
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| Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 2 to 7 years of age, during which thought is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought. |
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| Mental representations that are reversible. |
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| A belief in the permanence of certain attributes of objects despite superficial changes. |
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| Concrete Operational Stage |
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| Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 7 to 11 years of age, during which the individual uses operations and replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations. |
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| Piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development, which begins at 11 to 15 years of age and continues through the adult years; it features thinking about things that are not concrete, making predictions, and using logic to come up with hypotheses about the future. |
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| Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning |
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| A phrase that denotes adolescents' ability to develop hypotheses, or best hunches, about ways to solve a problem such as an algebraic equation. |
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| An individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding. |
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| Alexander Chess and Stella Thomas (1977,1996) |
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| Two psychiatrists that identified three basic types of temperament in children: The easy child, the difficult child, and the slow-to-warm-up child. |
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| A child who is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and easily adapts to new experiences. |
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| A child who tends to react negatively and to cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept new experiences. |
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| The Slow-to-Warm-Up Child |
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| A child which has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, in inflexible, and displays a low intensity of mood. |
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| The close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver. |
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| The ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment. |
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Devised a theory he called psychosocial development. Consisted of eight (8) psychosocial stages - infancy through old age.
Trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus identity confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, integrity versus despair. |
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| (the first 18 months of life): Trust is built when a baby’s basic needs—such as comfort, food, and warmth—are met. If infants’ needs are not met by responsive, sensitive caregivers, the result is mistrust. Trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live. |
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| Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt |
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| (18 months through 3 years): Children can develop either a positive sense of independence and autonomy or negative feelings of shame and doubt. In seeking autonomy, they are likely to develop a strong sense of independence. A toddler who is experiencing toilet training is learning the beginnings of self-control. The toddler’s growing independence is evident in the child’s insistence that no matter how difficult the task, “I can do it myself!” Similarly common is the toddler’s assertion of autonomy with a simple two-letter word: “No!” |
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| (3 to 5 years); During these years, children’s social worlds are widening. When asked to assume more responsibility for themselves, children can develop initiative. When allowed to be irresponsible or made to feel anxious, they can develop too much guilt. The preschooler is more likely to engage in imaginative play propelled by his or her own fantasies. The child may make friends of his or her own choosing for the first time. |
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| (age 6 to puberty): Children can achieve industry by mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. When they do not, they can feel inferior. At the end of early childhood, children are ready to turn their energy to learning academic skills. If they do not, they can develop a sense of being incompetent and unproductive. During the beginnings of elementary school, children learn the value of what Erikson called industry, gaining competence in academic skills and acquiring the ability to engage in self-discipline and hard work. |
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| At this stage, individuals either form intimate relationships with others or become socially isolated. (Erikson - early adulthood) |
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| Generativity vs Stagnation |
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| Making a contribution to the next generation. (Erikson - middle adulthood) |
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The person who has entered the later years of life is engaged in looking back—evaluating his or her life and seeking meaning. (Erikson - late adulthood)
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| A restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent's directions and to value hard work and effort. |
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| A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but still places limits and controls on behavior. |
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| A parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child's life. |
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| A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. |
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| A way of thinking that involves worrying about a topic without finding a resolution. |
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| Ways that some friends might make matters worse by giving their pals even more things to worry about than they had originally realized. |
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| Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) |
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| Developed a theory of moral development. He believed moral development consists of a sequence of qualitative changes in the way an individual thinks. The theory contains three levels and six stages - Preconventional level, conventional level, and postconventional level. |
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| Kohlberg's theory is called a ________ _________ because it focuses on the rights of the individual as the key to sound moral resoning. |
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| The _____ ______ approach to moral development views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpsonal communicaiton, relationships, and concerns for others. |
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| Behavior that is intended to benefit other people. |
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| A period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs in early adolescence. |
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| The main class of male sex hormones (testosterone). |
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| The main class of female sex hormones (estradiol). |
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| Erikson's fifth psychological stage, in which adolescents face the challenges of finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. |
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| The transitional period from adolescence to adulthood, spanning approximately 18-25 years of age. The main features are: Identity exploration, especially in love and work, Instability, Self-focus, A feeling of being "in-between", and Access to various life possibilities and an opportunity to transform one's life. |
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| Cellular Clock Theory of Aging |
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| Leonard Hayflick's (1977) view that cells divide a maximum of about 100 times and that, as we age, our cells become less capable of dividing. This theory places the human life span's upper limit at about 120 years. |
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| Free Radical Theory of Aging |
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| States that people age because unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals are produced inside their cells. These molecules demand DNA and other cellular structures. |
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| Hormonal Stress Theory of Aging |
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| Theory that argues that over time the body's hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease. |
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| The specialization of function in one hemisphere of the brain or the other. |
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| Expert knowlege about the practical aspects of life. |
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