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reject supernatural explanations of the world
truth comes from SCIENCE/INDUCTIVE LOGIC
people uncover truth via sensory data
rhetoric is secondary to science |
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truth CHANGES from moment to moment
truth is RELATIVE/SUBJECTIVE
rhetoric is key to constructing and sharing |
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multiple gods control fate
truth comes from a DIVINE SOURCE
early forms of rhetoric came in the form of Greek Myths |
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Plato addresses rhetoric’s association with power, its potential for manipulating audiences, and rhetoric’s relationship to truth.
Socrates (representing Plato’s views) debates three sophists (Gorgias, young sophist Polus, and villainous mature Sophist Callicles) about rhetoric, politics, and justice; it represents a criticism of all rhetoric and all rhetoricians (even though Plato concedes to some rhetorical benefits in Phaedrus)
Tackles the question what happens to a society when law and justice rest on persuasion
basic theme: |
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Plato’s view of soul
one part loves wisdom (the philosopher), one part loves nobility and honor (military people), and one part loves pleasure (people controlled by loving pleasure never know peace of mind or self-control)
The Horses & Charioteer Myth |
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| How can Plato’s charioteer metaphor be applied to the movie Reefer Madness? |
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| Mary cannot use wisdom to tame her appetite to belong with the group of people. She is driven to madness by not accurately assessing the credibility of the people nor assessing their claims. By this, the chariot is driven by the black horse, is untame, unruly, and disastrous. |
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| What is Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric |
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| the faculty of observing, in any given case, the available means of persuasion |
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| List and describe the three rhetorical speech settings? |
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deliberative (legislative) (symbouletikon)
dealt with the future
public policy and laws
forensic (judicial)
dealt with issues of the past
judicial rhetoric: Greece’s citizens were given an opportunity to defend themselves against charges
initial forensic cases were about property disputes
demonstrative (ceremonial)
dealt with issues of the present
speeches of praise and blame
modern example: Comedy Central Roasts |
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| What is Aristotle’s System of Invention? Specifically, what are the different appeals rhetors use to persuade an audience? Provide examples of each. |
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logos- LOGIC, making sure your arguments are logical sounding.
dubbed logic of sound arguments
not the formal logic found in dialectic, but the reasoning people actually use practically in public
pathos- Appeal to Emotion
dubbed psychology of emotion
ethos- Credibility/character
dubbed sociology of the person |
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| the epicurean, stoics, and skeptics |
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| GREAT EMPHASIS on law, high view of law, and it stood above even the individual |
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greatest contribution to rhetoric wa 12 tables
1st code of Roman law
established courts divided by law (e.g., marriage, women, reason, murder)
necessary to have a great memory, to excel in delivery, and have a keen grasp on style and diction in Rome |
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| These people lead lives of tasteful pleasure and favor inductive reasoning over the transcendent truth |
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| shifted to monotheistic thought and correct moral conduct. |
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| Also known as skeptics; people who doubt; these are motivated by self-interest—they’re out for themselves |
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| What’s the significance of the Rhetorica ad Herennium |
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It was the first major Roman text and refined the rhetorical canons described as DAIMS. It also outlined the Stasis system, which outlined arguments to be made from 2 opposing sides; definitional disputes and procedural disputes
definitional dispute (e.g. Clinton’s “sexual relations”
procedural dispute (e.g. Miranda Laws)
“first complete Hellenistic rhetoric”, that is, an essentially Greek rhetorical treatise written in Latin, for Romans by a Roman
promoted a preference for judicial argument (favoring sophistic tradition over legislatively focused Aristotelian tradition) |
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| Cicero assigns three functions to oratory |
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to teach
to delight
to persuade |
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| Explain the roles of wisdom and eloquence in ancient Rome? |
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Cicero on Wisdom/Eloquence are union
“I have been led by reason itself to hold this opinion first and foremost, that wisdom without eloquence does too little for the good of states, but that loquence without wisdom is generally highly disadvantageous and is never helpful”
Wisdom is largely practical in nature, and guided in making sound decisions in public and private arenas
“For from eloquence, the state receives many benefits, provided only it is accompanied by wisdom, the guide of all human affairs.”
For Cicero, character was not crafted through the words of a speech, as Aristotle suggested in ethos, but virtuous character was an inherent trait of an individual that gradually revealed itself through decisions and actions over the course of a lifetime
Cicero wanted to reunite “the tongue and the brain” and thus to produce great speakers who also were great thinkers |
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| How did Cicero become know as the “great orator”? How did Cicero die? How was his death used symbolically in Ancient Rome? |
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Cicero started as a lawyer trained in rhetoric and stoicism. Cicero prosecuted Verres, a corrupt governor of Sicily, and his prosecution was so outstanding, Verres went into exile; Cicero was henceforth known as the GREAT ORATOR
Caesar’s assassinated. Cicero attacks Mark Antony, claiming he’s Rome’s next tyrant; Antony has Cicero killed, and his tongue is cut out and nailed to a spear which symbolized the danger of rhetoric or eloquence when used against the emperor |
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| What are some of the logical fallacies Cicero characterized? |
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Definition
ad hominem: attacking person instead of ideas
ad nauseum: saying something repeatedly doesn’t make it true
post hoc, ergo propter hoc: false cause |
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| What are the five classical rhetorical canons? |
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Definition
delivery
the control of voice and body in a manner suitable to the dignity of the subject matter and the style
how you say it
arrangement
the distribution of arguments thus discovered in proper order
how you organize it
invention
discovery of valid or seemingly valid arguments
how well you produce new knowledge
memory
firm mental grasp of matter and words of a speech
expression (style)
focused on the fitting of the proper language to the invented material
use of ornamental language |
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| Explain Cicero’s notion of loci. |
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Definition
loci or lation systems began as memory devices and evolved into inventional methods
a rhetor might associate an argument in a speech with a place in a familiar building, putting each argument, literally, in its place.
recalling the arguments, then, involved a mental stroll through the building, reciting arguments along the way
loci systems gradually developed into methods for discovering persuasive arguments
became categorized of arguments, general types that could be explored in developing a case
loci systems gradually developed into methods for discovering persuasive arguments
became categorized of arguments, general types that could be explored in developing a case
loci systems gradually developed into methods for discovering persuasive arguments
became categorized of arguments, general types that could be explored in developing a case |
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| What does Cicero say about humor? |
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there is great and frequent utility in humor; there is an absolute impossibility to learn wit by studying it
Cicero sought to provide guidance on a difficult topic
Vital to maintain dignity in the use of humors, which means respecting the audience’s sensibilities
human suffering should not be a source of humor
don’t let humor become buffoonery or mere mimicking
know when to use humor, and when to refrain
effective huor occurs when “a word snatched from an antagonist is used to hurl a shaft at the assailant himself
laughs can also be raised by juxtaposing words that are similar in spelling or using a portion of a well known verse at just the right place in a speech, or an old expression where its meaning is taken in an unexpected way
taking a word literally when it is eant figuratively, or figuratively when meant literally, are also possibilities for humor based on words |
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| What is the stasis system? Who developed it? What are different examples of stasis? |
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Definition
Cicero discusses a method for thinking through a judicial case that involved anticipating likely points of conflict or stasis
issues of fact
what occurred? when did it occur?
issues of definition
how should we classify this act? Was it murder?
issues of quality
addressed severity; was the killing committed in a moment of great passion? was it carefully planned ahead of time?
issues of procedure could produce moments of stasis if either side wished to object to how the case was being pursued
Students studying a stasis system learned to think through a legal case by following the points at which disagreements were likely to arise
Stasis system promoted basic critical thinking, an important preparation for participation in civic life |
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| What’s Quintillan’s definition of rhetoric? |
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Definition
“The good man speaking well”
emphasized ethos and civic participation |
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| What was the Second Sophistic? |
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Definition
Period from about 50-100 AD, during which some of the oratorical elements associated with the Greek Sophists were introduced in parts of the Roman Empire
These wanted to preserve the heritage of Hellenism in language, literature, rhetoric and religion
were educators to help citizens become active in political life (as a lawyer or provincial administrator, for citizen-orators declined sgnificantly in poweri
orators could make a living by entertaining large crowds with speeches that emphasized style over content
amazed crowds with feats of memory and dramatic delivery
“any Sophist of repute could be sure of a good audience and a good ee in almost any city in Asia”
It represents a serious demotion of rhetoric from its former prominence as a means of shaping public policy and influencing judicial decisions
Defacing the emperor meant death, so deliberative speeches were constrained |
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| What makes Medieval letter writing unique? Who wrote letters? Why did they write letters? What are the parts of a letter? How do the letters compare to email? |
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Letter writing was intricate and extremely formal.
Where was a right way and a wrong way of composing a letter
With the influx of commerce and war a way of communication was needed
Letters served as contracts and war declarations
Most of the letter writing was done through the church
The church was the only establishment that hosted people who could write.
Church in turn knew all about a business or government
Many people became frustrated with the church and educated their own son |
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| What are schemes and tropes? Provide examples of different schemes and tropes. (See ticket out.) |
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Definition
Tropes: deviate from normal meaning of words. EG hey nice threads thug.
Schemes: deviate from expected words patterns EG alliteration.pun, onomatopoeia |
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| Regarding Augustine, what is the preacher’s dilemma? What’s the teacher’s dilemma? |
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| A rhetoric of God is both impossible and unavoidable. However, God commands that the preacher must speak of Him. He sought to adapt the resources of the classical rhetoric he had once taught |
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| What is the significance of Medieval preaching? How were sermons arranged? Specifically, what are protheme and antetheme? |
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protheme
first theme of the sermon, then prayer
antetheme
first prayer then explanation of prayer |
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| What are sententiae? What are some problems associated with its use? |
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Single sentences from the works of Aristotle were taken out of context.
isolated statements from ancient authorities
These claims were taken out of context
Were employed to prove a point in scholastic debate. .
Actual meaning of the writings were lost because the had been separated from the text. |
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| Note Bacon’s different idols. |
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idol of the tribe- Human norms mistaken for truth
idol of the cave- Limited experience. You can’t make a judgment because you have little to none experience in the world.
idol of the marketplace- Doing what’s popular. (Could care less, couldn’t care less)
idol of the theater- Mistaking fiction for the truth. |
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What is the defining characteristics of the following movement (What eras would you associate with these movements?):
Belles Lettres |
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Definition
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| Generally speaking, what are the different uses of rhetoric |
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Definition
Political uses
rhetoric helps make and break leaders (e.g., Clinton and sexual relations)
rhetoric defines who and what is important (e.g., missing persons slide (white females)
Examples: congress, supreme court, labor unions, student government (prop. 30)
AS A RULE OF THUMB: the more democratic the society → the richer and more complex the rhetorical structures
Religious uses
Sermons
Convert people to a particular faith
Pop Culture
Songs (e.g., 2 Live Crew and “Culture Wars” of the 1980s)
Books
Advertisements (exigence--need you to buy the product)
internet |
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| Generally speaking, why should we study rhetoric? |
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Definition
helps the individual
become a better user of rhetoric
know how to construct texts
become a critical consumer of rhetoric
know how to analyze texts
gain an awareness of history and the history of thought through the ages
helps the society
promote a free marketplace of society
understand how people use language to shape the course of history |
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| What is a SYMBOL? What’s the difference between a sign and symbol? |
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A symbol is a human constructed relationship between two different phenomena
A sign links to signal the presence of something and is usually prescriptive or descriptive |
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according to Sophists
inventing arguments for and against a proposition
through argument and counterargument, it was believed skill in debate would improve and lead to a better view of truth
speeches started with endoxa, or premises that were widely believed or taken to be highly probable. Then an argument might develop through a premise such as, “it is better to possess much virtue than much money,” where, then, another will argue against that on the basis of other endoxa claims. This, they say, will lead to deeper truth
according to Socrates
dialectic is a form of dialogue
questions are used to answer questions
questions used to identify possible contradictions in hypotheses
applied to philosophical questions of morality, goodness, justice
dialectics isnt about winning an argument; it’s about finding transcendent truth |
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how is knowledge constructed and shared?
rhetoric explains and/or manipulates
rhetoric creates and defines |
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who are we?
the study of being, nature, and structure of reality
how do we organize all that exists into categories and relations |
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| premises that were widely believed or taken to be highly probably |
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| kairos (Sophist) (think Kanye West) |
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favorable situation or opportune moment
carried the idea of passing through a momentary opening before it closes
meet the expectations of the audience
use words appropriate to the situation
Gorgias’ belief that truth is momentary to circumstances
under doctrine of kairos, truth depends on a careful consideration of all factors surrounding an event, including time, opportunity, and circumstances
rhetoric’s search for relative truth rather than absolute certainty; a consideration of opposite points of view, as well as attention to such factors as time and circumstances. |
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Taking a general agreed upon idea and make it specific.
All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Socrates is mortal.
involves syllogism and enthymeme |
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| indefinite vs. definite questions |
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Definition
an indefinite question was discussed without specific reference to persons, time, place, or other particular limitation
ex. should one enter politics; is the universe governed by providence
Aristotle did not include indefinite questions into rhetoric, but grouped it into dialectic
definite questions include issues concerning specific individuals, facts, places, and times
ex. should Cato marry? Is Crassus guilty of theft? |
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| art or systematic discipline that is taught through theory |
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rhetorical syllogism in which part of the argument is missing because its assumed to be true
ex. Mary will fail the exam because she didn’t study. (The missing premise has to do with people that don’t study will fail.) |
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| given a context, what is inappropriate to say |
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naming the same thing two or three different ways in succession and elaborating them to
evoke heightened emotions
explore every facet of an idea
ornateness helps develop content |
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| Res are actions Verba is words. |
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| vita activa vs. vita contemplativa |
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| Vita Activa is the practical life. And vita contemplativa is living the contemplative life |
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| Making something difficult look very easy. (But it takes practice) |
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| Vico’s belief that humans organize and re-create their world via-metaphor. FINDING SIMILARITIES IN SOMETHING THAT IS DIFFERENT |
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Definition
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Definition
proper order used in a speech (i.e., logical progression of ideas)
proper time allocated to parts of a speech (e.g., speech intro and conclusion appropriate length for speech [or writing in a modern sense]) |
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| capacity for discovery, whether of facts, insights, or even “self-awareness” (27) |
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Definition
Since y event followed x event, it must be TRUE. (I laid in front of the fireplace and got sick. (The fireplace caused it)
because one event followed another, the former caused the latter. |
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| Defense. One type of pleading common to forensic oratory, the other being accusation. |
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| Without end or limit; to infinity; never ending. |
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| Attacking one’s character to disprove the argument. |
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Term
How did the following thinkers contribute to rhetorical theory:
Gorgias (485-380 BC) |
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Definition
thought that the only reality we have access to lies in the human psyche, and its malleability and susceptibility to linguistic manipulation
may have used persuasion as an “art of deception, which works through the medium of language to massage the psyche”
used words effectively lead to a hypnotic effect
rhetoric for Gorgias was VERBAL MAGIC through control over an audience’s emotions
used lots of rhyming
employed chiasmus
ADVANCED 3 PRIMARY RHETORICAL THEORIES (see definitions below for more in depth)
kairos-opportune time, meeting the expectations of the audience
animation-delivery should match content
cosmos-proper order and proper time in portion of a speech |
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Term
How did the following thinkers contribute to rhetorical theory:
Protagoras (485-411 BC) |
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Definition
famous for the phrase “man is the measure of all things
advocate of debate
consider all sides of an issue
challenge and justify customs
considered an argument will prevail when “it has been tested by and withstands the attacks of the opposing side”
CONSIDERED TO BE THE GREATEST SOPHIST |
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One of Socrates’ teachers
answering questions with questions is less combatative than direct assertions, which, thus, is a more feminine style of persuasion
Mistress to Pericles. Wrote many of his speeches. Influenced Socrates. |
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Definition
laid the foundation for western philosophy
most famous for his dialectic method (probably from Aspasia)
dialectic is a form of dialogue
questions are used to answer questions
questions used to identify possible contradictions in hypotheses
applied to philosophical questions of morality, goodness, justice
dialectics isnt about winning an argument; it’s about finding transcendent truth |
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Definition
Question rhetoric as being very manipulative.
founder of the Academy of Athens (where Aristotle studied)
Real rhetoric is
a psychological study of the human soul, focused on its three types or parts and the loves of each
a logical study of arguments (logoi) directed to each type of soul
Rhetoric propagates truth, but does not create it |
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Definition
brought political rhetoric to a high development through writing (may or may not have been a Sophist)
focused on PRACTICAL PROBLEMS; less concerned with issues of absolute truth (indication of Sophistry)
civic education: teach people how to rhetorically navigate through the workings of the state
focused on liberal education (philosophy, sciences, arts, etc.)
founded one of the first RHETORICAL SCHOOLS
less of a set of rules to guide speech making, but promoted rhetoric as a means for advancing a culture and propagating political ideas
did not claim to teach areté, but taught rhetoric
introduced the thematic and pragmatic
the thematic asked that rhetoric concentrate on significant matters
the pragmatic demanded that it make a positive contribution to the life of the audience
insisted on HIGH moral character in students (ethos)
Isocrates said rhetoric should be employed to advance Greek institutions and Greek unity |
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Definition
Famous definition of rhetoric: “Faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.
Dialectic and Rhetoric
Similarities
each deals with questions that concern everyone
each deal with questions that do not belong to a specific science or art
each can reason on either side of a case
each starts with endoxa or common opinions
Aristotle presents rhetoric more as a study for discovering persuasive arguments and appeals not merely a technique for making persuasive and impressive speeches
Rhetoric is more pragmatic and practical; its useful in advocacy, audience analysis, counterargument analysis for refutation, and self-defense
For Aristotle, all rhetoric was characterized by enthymematic exchanges, by transactions between the speaker and the audience involving agreements rooted in deeply held or “heartfelt” convictions.
Enthymemes are arguments that obligate rhetors to consider the beliefs, values, and experiences of the audience. |
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Definition
Rhetoric is the civilizing force that makes human social life possible. By skill in rhetoric we overcome our human tendencies towards violence and rule of the strongest.
Rhetoric has a power to move the minds and bend the wills of the hearers |
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Term
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Definition
Defines rhetoric as: “The good man speaks well.” Teacher of rhetoric.
emphasized ethos and civic participation
Aristotle did not include indefinite questions into rhetoric, but grouped it into dialectic; Quintilian claimed otherwise, indefinite questions could be addressed by rhetoricians |
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Definition
Focus on Stylistic aspects of rhetoric in good writing
early application of rhetoric to literary criticism
focused on emotive power of language
similar to Gorgias’ interest in the sheer power of language; called it the sublimity of language
Rhetorical devices (e.g., alliteration, euphemism, hyperbole, onomatopoeia.). |
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Definition
| Known for opening up her how convent in which she spoke to all-male audiences and claimed that in her visions, god told her to do so. |
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