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- Narrative device with meaning behind it - usually used to illustrate abstract thoughts
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- Supports a claim by comparing 2 things that share some characteristics but are essentially dissimilar
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- The pairing of opposites to display the necessity of choice between them
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- The maker of anything; creator; originator
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| Brummett & Bowers: Authority (2 types) |
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- Authors have authority - they are the origin of the thoughts & language in a text
- Those who are in charge of some enterprise have authority
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- The body of rules, principles, or standards accepted as axiomatic and universally binding in a field of study or art
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- Ordinary; undistinguished or uninteresting; without individuality
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- Arguing a topic from both sides - Sophistic concept
- Intended to help an individual to gain a deeper understanding of an issue
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- An argument in which one premise is not explicity stated
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- Something that is certain, fixed, or known
- (opposed to doxa)
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- Art, or craft
- Distinguished from episteme
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- The product of a fit between expectations and a perceived reality
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- Of or pertaining to a norm, especially an assumed norm regarded of the standard of correctness in behavior, speech, writing, ect.
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- The behaviors and beliefs characteristic of a particular social, ethnic, or age group
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| Atwell: Democracy (definition) |
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- Government by the people
- A form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people
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- Composition from like parts, elements, or characteristics
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- Knowledge as production, not product
- Knowledge as intervention and articulation rather than representation
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| Atwell: Liberal Arts Education |
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- The purpose of such an education has been to pass on "culture"
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- The idea that there is a certain stance or position that is called forth from a text
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| Atwell: Value(s) (definition) |
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- Relative worth, merit, or importance
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- Anyone who is crafing a message, trying to advocate something, or trying to have some sort of impact
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- The community that preaches and practices rhetorical standards that contrast sharply with the standards embraced by those in other domains
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- The whole range of arts not only of persuasion, but also of producing or reducing misunderstanding
- The art of discourse
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- The would-be scholar who studies the most effective forms of communication
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| Booth: Listening-Rhetoric |
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- Paying full attention to opposing views - aims to reduce misunderstanding
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- The whole range of shoddy, dishonest communicative arts producing misunderstanding - along w/ other harmful results
- The arts of making the worse seem the better cause
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| Booth: Deliberative Rhetoric |
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- Attempts to make the best possible future
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- Trying to figure out what happened in the past
- Attempts to change what we see as truth about the past
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| Booth: Epideictic Rhetoric |
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- Attempts to reshape views of the present
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- Someone who leads 2 sides to discover the grounds that they share (common ground)
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- A physical fact
- EX: Mountain X is 3,000 ft high at this moment
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- Constraints originated or managed by the rhetor and his method
- (Ethos, Pathos, Logos)
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| Bitzer: Inartistic Proofs |
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- Other constraints, in the situation, which may be operative
- EX: Statement of facts, oaths, laws, documents, contracts
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| Bitzer: Rhetorical Audience |
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- People who are capable of being influenced by discourse and of being mediators of change
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- Persons, events, objects and relations which are parts of the situation because they have the power to constrain decision and action needed to modify the exigence
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- An imperfection marked by urgency
- A defect, an obstacle, something waiting to be done
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| Bitzer: Rhetorical Situation |
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- "A complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential exigence which can be completely or partially removed if discourse, introduced into the situation, can so constrain human decision or action as to bring about the significant modification of exigence"
- Situations have meaning - they exist separate from our consciousness
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- Consists of uncontested factual claims
- Accepted by both parties and is undisputed
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| Jasinski: Doxa (narrow meaning) |
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- Realm of appearance, ambiguity, fluctuation, becoming, and opinion
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- Gives a level of accuracy on what we are talking about
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- A reasoning link that connects the data to the claim
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- Expresses a specific position on some controversial issue that the arguer wants the audience to accept
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| Jasinski: Toulmin model of argument (3 things) |
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- Arguments need data, claim, and warrant
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- When someone reports on past/present conditions in the world, that person is making a factual statement
- A factual statement becomes a claim as soon as someone expresses doubt or disagreement
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- Need to have comparison/knowledge to understand
- (Terms like greater, lesser, better, worse)
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| Kennedy: Socrates and Plato |
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- Socrates = philosopher, Plato = his student
- Both distrusted the teaching of the sophists
- Thought rhetoric was essentially a form of flattery - morally irresponsible and not based on knowledge of truth or sound logic
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- First person to reconize that rhetoric as an art of communication was morally neutral
- Thought rhetoric could be used for good or ill
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| Kennedy: Logos (classical modes of proof) |
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- Logical argument/appeal
- The truth/logical validity of what is being argued
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| Kennedy: Ethos (classical modes of proof) |
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- The projection of the speaker's character
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| Kennedy: Pathos (classical modes of proof) |
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- Emotional appeal
- Awakening the emotions of the audience
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| Kennedy: Rhetoric In Democracy |
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- Rhetoric used to channel the course of events in a direction they thought was best for the city or for themselves
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- "Wisdom bearer"
- "Teachers of wisdom" - asserted ability to transmit wisdom/eloquence
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- Famous Sophist - encouraged students to debate both sides of a question in order to train them to understand the nature of controversy and to defend themselves better
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- Sought to create a prose style, verbally embellished like poetry, that would convey the charm of poetry when heard
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| Murphy: Isocrates (and 3 essential things for a great orator) |
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- Founder of a school devoted to teaching "philosophy" for the practical education of statesmen
- 3 things: natural ability, practice or experience, and education
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- Pupil of Socrates - one of the most influential thinkers in the Western world
- Developed the dialogue method of discourse
- 2 divergent views on the value of rhetoric
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| Murphy: Socratic (Platonic) Dialogue |
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- Socrates, professing ignorance of the subject matter, asks questions of another character - out of the programmed questions and answers comes a fuller understanding of the subject
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- The branch of logic that deals w/ reasoning about opinions
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- Dictates that what is said must be said at the right time
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- "Belief"
- This is one aim of sophistic rhetoric
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- "Aesthetic pleasure"
- This is one aim of sophistic rhetoric
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- "The appropriate"
- What you are saying needs to be appropriate for the time in which you are saying something
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- "The Possible"
- Sophists focus: turning the possible into the actual
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| Poulokos: Sophistic Definition of Rhetoric |
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- Rhetoric is the art which seeks to capture in opportune moments that which is appropriate and attempts to suggest that which is possible
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| Poulokos: Eloquence (sophistic) |
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- To show all the points of view, and to give force to the ones that they think are more useful
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| Condit: Intertextual Polysemy |
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- Refers to the existence of variety in messages on mass communication channels
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| Condit: Internally Polysemic (open texts) |
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- Discourses that have unstable or internally contradictory meanings
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- Audience members share understandings of the denotations of a text, but disagree about the valuation of those denotations which leads them to produce different interpretations
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| Condit: Connotative Meaning |
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- What you make of the intended meaning
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| Condit: Denotative Meaning |
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- The intended meaning
- What the author/producer wants us to understand
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- Any text that is capable of bearing multiple meanings
- All texts are polysemic
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| Bitzer: Realist Philosophy of Meaning |
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- Assumes that meaning is constructed in situations
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| Vatz: Location of Meaning |
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- Vatz believes that the people who are speaking create the meaning, rather than meaning arising out of a situation (Bitzer)
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| Brummett & Bowers: Subject Position |
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- A reader's relationship to a text
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| Brummett & Bowers: Identified Subject Position |
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- When a reader finds characters, themes, or images in the text with which he identifies, or desires to identify
- EX: kid imagines himself as Shaq while watching him on TV
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| Brummett & Bowers: Implied Subject Position |
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- Text does not invite reader to see themselves in the text, but does call readers to see characters, images, and themes in a distanced and ironic way
- Ironic or satiric texts often encourage this stance
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| Brummett & Bowers: Subversive Subject Position |
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- A subjectivity is assumed that is at odds with, and often directly opposed to, the call of the text
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| Brummett & Bowers: Object Positions |
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- Whole classes of people may be created for others and for themselves as objects, not subjects.
- EX: Porn offers women only a stance as objects
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| Brummett & Bowers: Narration |
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- Provides an explanation for why people are doing what they are doing, how they got "here," and where they are going
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| Ceccarelli: Resistive Reading |
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- Audiences do not accept the text's dominant meaning - can completely twist the dominant meaning of a text
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| Ceccarelli: Strategic Ambiguity |
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- Results in 2 or more otherwise conflicting groups of readers converging in praise of a text
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- The idea that "multiple meanings" exist for a single text
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| Bitzer: 3 Constituents of a Rhetorical Situation |
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- Exigence, Audience, and Constraints
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- The deepest form of LR: the systematic probing for common ground
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