Term
| To get energy to do cellular work, ATP is _______ releasing stored energy from a __________ _____, liberating it and forming ______ |
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Definition
| hydralized, phosphate bond, ADP |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Smaller molecules -> Larger molecules (building molecules) |
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Term
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Definition
| Larger molecules -> Smaller molecules (breaking down) |
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Term
| To trap energy released from the ______ __ _____ ______, cells use some of the released energy to reattach a ________ _____ onto ADP to make ATP = _______ |
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Definition
| metabolism of food molecules, phosphate group, phosphorylation |
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Term
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Definition
| The oxidation of organic molecules to fuel reactions in living systems |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Respiration begins with.. |
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Definition
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Term
| (In glycolysis) 6-Carbon glucose is split into two.. |
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Definition
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Term
| If O2 is present, glycolysis leads to.. |
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Definition
| Two other energy pathways that further extract energy from the two pyruvic acid molecules |
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Term
| In the absence of O2 (in glycolysis...) |
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Definition
| Pyruvic acid is either reduced to lactic acid or ethanol + CO2 = fermentation |
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Term
| Does glycolysis require oxygen? What happens in its absence? |
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Definition
| No. Pyruvic acid is reduced by the electron carrier NADH to a fermentation by-product |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Pyruvic acid releases CO2 before being reduced to ethanol |
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Term
| Alcoholic Fermentation for Human Use |
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Definition
| Bakers use the CO2 gas production by yeast to help bread rise; the alcoholic industry uses the process to produce wine and beer |
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Term
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Definition
| Pyruvic acid is reduced directly to lactic acid. |
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Term
| Where does lactic acid fermentation occur? |
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Definition
| In our muscles when deprived of oxygen and by certain bacteria, which are used to make cheese and yogurt. |
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Term
| If ATP can be made by fermentation, then why are there other respiratory pathways> |
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Definition
| Although anaerobic respiration produces ATP, the remanding bonds present in fermentation by-products possess energy that can be exploited in the formation of additional ATP molecules. |
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Term
| Which process makes more ATP - Aerobic or anaerobic respiration? By how much? |
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Definition
| 36 ATP (Aerobic Respiration) / 2 ATP (Anaerobic Respiration) = Aerobic Respiration is 18 times more effective than anaerobic respiration. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which a cell uses O2 to "oxidize" molecules and release energy |
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Term
| Chemical Equation of Aerobic Respiration |
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Definition
| C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 ATP |
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Term
| The chemical equation of aerobic respiration is essentially the opposite of what reaction? |
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Definition
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Term
| In the presence of O2, what processes follow glycolysis? |
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Definition
| The Krebs cycle & Electron Transport Chain (ETC) |
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Term
| Where do the aerobic phases of aerobic respiration take place? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Process by which one molecule of glucose (a 6-Carbon compound) is broken in half, producing 2 molecules of pyruvic acid (a 3-Carbon compound) |
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Term
| What does the process initiation require (of glycolysis?) |
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Definition
| 2 ATP (i.e activation energy) |
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Term
| What is produced by glycolysis? |
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Definition
| 4 ATP = 2 ATP Net (minus activation energy) + 4 high-energy electrons |
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Term
| Where does glycolysis take place? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Each pair of high-energy electrons liberated during glycolysis is passed along to an electron carrier, the coenzyme NAD+, which is reduced to NADH, holding these electrons until they can be transferred to other molecules. (4 e- = 2 NADH per glucose molecule) |
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Term
| What happens by producing NADH? |
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Definition
| NAD+ helps pass energy from glucose to other chemical pathways in the cell. |
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Term
| What is another important electron carrier? What is it reduced to? |
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Definition
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Term
| When does reduction occur? |
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Definition
| When a substance gains electrons |
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Term
| When does oxidation occur? |
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Definition
| Simultaneously to reduction = a "redox" reaction |
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Term
| Reduction results in a ____ of energy. |
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Definition
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Term
| Oxidation results in a _____ of energy. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Process by which pyruvic acid is broken down into CO2 in a series of energy-exchanging reactions |
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Term
| Where does the Krebs cycle take place? |
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Definition
| The matrix (cytoplasm) of the mitochondrion |
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Term
| How does the Krebs cycle work? (Step A) |
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Definition
1. Pyruvic acid (pyruvate) -> mitochondrion
2. 3-Carbon pyruvic acid - 1 carbon atom = CO2 + 2-carbon compound
3. 2-carbon compound + Coenzyme A = Acetyl CoA
4. Acetyl-CoA adds the 2-carbon acetyl group to a 4-carbon molecule froming the 6-carbon molecule citric acid (citrate) |
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Term
| How often does Step A (Citric Acid Production) of the Krebs cycle occur? |
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Definition
| Twice, one for each pyruvate |
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Term
| What is produced in Step A of the Krebs cycle? |
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Definition
2 Carbon Dioxide molecules (CO2) -> Air
2 NADH molecules -> electron transport chain |
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Term
| How does the Krebs cycle extract energy? |
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Definition
1. Citric acid enters the Krebs cycle
2. Citric acid is broken down into a series of steps into a 4-Carbon compound yielding 2 CO2 molecules + 1 ATP + 5 pair of high energy electrons carried by 4 NADH and 1 FADH2. |
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Term
| What is the net production for each glucose molecule that enters into the Krebs cycle (including the preparatory conversion to acetyl CoA?) |
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Definition
2 NADH + 6 NADH = 8 NADH
2 FADH2
2 ATP
6 CO2 -> Air |
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Term
| Remember, _____ produced ___ ATP and ___ NADH, so there is a net production of ___ ATP and ____ NADH up to now. (End of energy extraction) |
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Definition
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Term
| What happens with the NADH and FADH2 molecules after the Krebs cycle? |
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Definition
| 10 NADH + 2 FADH2 -> Electron Transport Chain |
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Term
| Electron Transport Chain (ETC) |
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Definition
| Uses high-energy electrons from the Krebs cycle and glycolysis to convert ADP to ATP |
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Term
| Where does the ETC take place? |
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Definition
| Along the cristae (internal folded membrane of the mitochonrion) |
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Term
| At the end of the chain, what is oxygen? |
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Definition
| The final electron acceptor |
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Term
| How does ETC help make more ATp? |
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Definition
1. High-energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed into the ETCm from one carrier protein to any other, releasing electron energy along the way.
2. At the end of the ETCG is an enzyme that combines each used pair of low-energy electrons to 2 hydrogen ions and 1/2 an O2 molecule to form water (H2O) -> Air |
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Term
| What happens in an electron transport chain? |
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Definition
| Electrons pass from carrier to carrier through a series of oxidation-reduction reactions. During each transfer, some energy is released. |
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Term
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Definition
| Oxidative phosphorylation |
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Term
| How does the ETC phosphorylate ADP to ATP? |
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Definition
1. Every time 2 high-energy electron pairs flow down the ETC, their energy is used to transport hydrogen ions (H+) across the membrane.
2. H+ ions build up in the intermediate space, making it more positively charged than the other side of the membrane; sort of like a battery = proton motive force.
3. The inner membranes of the mitochondrion contain specialized protein channels called ATP synthases.
4. As H+ pass through these channels, the ATP synthases rotate.
5. With each turn, the enzyme grabs a low-energy ADP, attaches a phosphate forming an energized ATP (phosphorylation.) |
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Term
| Aerobic Respiration Timeline |
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Definition
| Glucose (C6H12O6) + Oxygen (O2) -> Glycolysis, Products: 2 NADH and 2 ATP -> 2 NADH, Krebs Cycle, 6 NADH 2 FADH2, Products: 2 ATP, 2 CO2 + 4 CO2 -> Electron Transport Chain, Products: 32 ATP, 6 H2O -> Carbon Dioxide (CO2) + Water (H2O) - Waste Products |
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Term
| Aerobic Respiration Chemical Equation |
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Definition
| C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6 CO2 (Krebs Cycle) + 6 H2O (Electron Transport Chain) + 36 ATP |
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Term
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Definition
| The methods that organisms have for obtaining oxygen and removing carbon dioxide |
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Term
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Definition
| The surface though which gas exchange takes place |
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Term
| Aerobic Respiration Chemical Equation |
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Definition
| C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6 CO2 (Krebs Cycle) + 6 H2O (Electron Transport Chain) + 36 ATP |
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Term
| Characteristics of the Respiratory Surface |
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Definition
| Thin walled (so diffusion can occur rapidly,) moist surface (oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse more quickly,) must be near a source of oxygen, in multicellular organisms it must be in contact with a transport surface |
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Term
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Definition
| No respiratory system, cell membrane is the respiratory surface, gas exchange occurs by diffusion |
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Term
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Definition
| No respiratory system, cell membrane is the respiratory surface, gas exchange occurs by diffusion |
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Term
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Definition
| The skin is the respiratory surface, it is kept moist by mucus secretions, hemoglobin aids in the transport of gases, skin -> capillaries -> body cells |
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Term
| Respiration in Grasshopper |
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Definition
| Respiratory surface is air sacs, spiracles - tiny holes that allow the diffusion of gases into the tracheal tubes, open circulatory system |
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Term
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Definition
| Gills - specialized organs that extract the oxygen in the water, gills have a rich supply of blood vessels to transport gases |
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Term
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Definition
| Specialized structures called alveoli serve as the respiratory surface; they lie at the end of the respiratory passageways (Trachea -> Bronchi -> Bronchioles -> Alveoli,) kept moist by mucus secretions, hemoglobin aids in the transport of gases |
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Term
| Pathway of Respiratory System |
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Definition
| Nostril -> Nasal Cavity -> Epiglottis -> Pharynx -> Larynx -> Trachea -> Bronchi -> Bronchioles -> Alveoli |
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Term
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Definition
| Entering air is filtered warmed and moistened, ciliated cells along membrane produce mucus |
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Term
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Definition
| Area in back of oral cavity where the nasal cavity joins it, passageway for air as it passes to the trachea, epiglottis covers the open end of the trachea |
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Term
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Definition
| Contains the vocal chords, "voice box" |
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Term
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Definition
| Windpipe, cartilage ringed tube that connects the pharynx to the bronchi, ciliated mucous membranes trap microscopic particles & sweep to pharynx (pollutants may interfere with cilia) |
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Term
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Definition
| Branch from end of trachea and lead to the two lungs, divide to form bronchioles |
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Term
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Definition
| Highly branches microscopic tubules (lack cartilage rings,) mucus membranes that end at alveoli |
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Term
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Definition
| The functional units fro gas exchange, contain the respiratory surface, oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the surrounding capillaries and CO2 and water diffuse from the capillaries into the alveoli |
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Term
| What purpose do the cilia and mucous membranes serve for the human respiratory system? |
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Definition
| Mucus membranes keep the surfaces moist - easier for diffusion, cilia membranes help move things along |
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Term
| Why do humans have an epiglottis? |
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Definition
| To keep food from going in the pharynx when a human swallows |
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Term
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Definition
| Phase that draws air into the lungs. Breathing out - high pressure, in - low pressure. Diaphragm pulls down and the chest cavity expands, causing pressure to decrease inside the lungs. |
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Term
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Definition
| Phase that draws air out of the lungs. Breathing in - high pressure, out - low pressure. Diaphragm pushes up and the chest cavity contracts, causing pressure to increase inside the lungs |
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Term
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Definition
| Condition in which the air sacs break down and the lungs lose their elasticity |
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Term
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Definition
| An allergic reaction in which the bronchial tubes narrow |
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Term
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Definition
| Alveoli become inflamed and flooded with fluid due to a bacterial or viral illness |
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Term
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Definition
| Cancerous growths inside the lung that interfere with normal lung functioning |
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Term
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Definition
| A highly contagious infection by the bacterium Mycobacterium Tuberculosis that forms tiny lumps throughout the tissues of the lungs |
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Term
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Definition
| Inflammation of the linings of the bronchial tubes |
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Term
| How many ATP molecules are produced (net) during the process of anaerobic respiration? |
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Definition
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Term
| Describe the process of lactic acid fermentation. |
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Definition
| Pyruvic acid is reduced directly to lactic cid. It occurs in our muscles when deprived of oxygen and by certain bacteria. Glucose -enzymes-> Pyruvic Acid -enzyme-> 2 lactic acid + 2 ATP |
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Term
| Describe the process of alcoholic fermentation. |
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Definition
| Pyruvic acid releases CO2, before being reduced to ethanol. Bakers use the CO2 gas produced by yeast to help bread rise. The alcohol industry uses the process to produce wine and beer. |
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Term
| Although total 4 ATP molecules are produced during glycolysis, why do only 2 net ATP come out at the end of anaerobic respiration? |
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Definition
| 2 ATP are used as activation energy |
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Term
| How many ATP molecules are produced during the process of aerobic respiration? |
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Definition
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Term
| Describe the process of aerobic respiration. |
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Definition
| A cell uses O2 to "oxidize" molecules and release energy. C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 ATP |
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Term
| Where in the cell does aerobic respiration occur? |
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Definition
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Term
| Name the metabolic wastes and what processes they come from. |
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Definition
| CO2 - Cellular respiration. Nitrogenous wastes - Deamination (in liver.) H2O - Cellular respiration, ETC, Dehydration synthesis. Mineral Salts - Various metabolic reactions. |
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Term
| In freshwater protists, what is the purpose of the contractile vacuole? |
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Definition
| Contractile vacuoles hold excess water |
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Term
| Excretion in Protists & Hydra |
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Definition
| Getting rid of water, ammonia (NH3,) carbon dioxide, and salts. |
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Term
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Definition
| Nitrogenous containing waste (form protein breakdown) is removed by nephridia. Long coiled tubes which remove nitrogenous wastes from blood capillaries and excrete it through tiny pores on the skin surface called nephridiopores. CO2 is excreted through moist skin. |
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Term
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Definition
| Remove nitrogenous wastes (uric acid) through Maplhigian Tubules. This saves water for the anthropod because uric acid is not water soluble. Diffusion of CO2 is out the spiracles that are connected to the tracheal tubes. |
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Term
| How is the liver an excretory organ? |
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Definition
| Deaminates amino acids & makes urea. Amino acids -changed to-> NH3 (Ammonia) -combined with CO2-> Urea -released into the blood-> FIltered by kidneys |
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Term
| How is the skin an excretory organ? |
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Definition
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Term
| How does perspiration regulate body temperature? |
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Definition
| When on the skin, it is evaporated and directly involved in thermoregulation, the ability of the body to remove excess heat |
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Term
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Definition
| Brings blood to the kidneys from the heart |
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Term
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Definition
| Returns blood from the kidney to the circulatory system |
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Term
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Definition
| Returns blood from the kidney to the circulatory system |
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Term
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Definition
| Two "bean-shaped" organs that take waste from the blood to produce urine |
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Term
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Definition
| Thin tubes that take urine from the kidney to the bladder |
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Term
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Definition
| A hollow organ that stores urine until it is excreted out of the body |
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Term
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Definition
| A tube that passes urine out of the body from the bladder |
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Term
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Definition
| Outside of the kidney, nephrons filtrate |
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Term
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Definition
| Collecting ducts drain urine from nephrons |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What is a nephron and how does it work? |
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Definition
| The functional unit of the kidney. It begins with an arteriole, which carries blood to be filtered. The arteriole enters a cup shaped structure called Bowman's capsule. Within the capsule, the arteriole divides, forming a ball of capillaries called the glomerulus. The blood in the glomerulus is under high pressure, and water containing urea, salts, and a variety of other substances is forced out of the blood and diffuses into the cells of the surrounding capsule. From this capsule is the nephric filtrate passes into the loop of the renal tubule,w hich is surrounded by capillaries. As the filtrate passes through the tubule, most of the water and useful substances are reabsorbed into the blood, a process requiring active trasnport. The remaining concentrated filtreate is in the urine, which passes into collecting ducts and is drained from the kidneys. |
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Term
| Why must most of the materials filtered by the nephron be reabsorbed? |
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Definition
| They are useful in blood and other bodily fluids |
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Term
| How do different body systems interact to bring about homeostasis? |
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Definition
| Circulatory & urinary - Blood to kidneys. |
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Term
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Definition
| Outer layer composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. |
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Term
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Definition
| The layer of dense irregular collagenous connective tissue that underlies the epidermis |
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Term
| Hypodermis/Subcutaneous Layer |
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Definition
| Loose connective tissue containing varying amounts of adipose that underlies and supports the skin |
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