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Research Methods (Part 2)
List of Terms from Research Methods, Design, and Analysis (11th edition)
163
Psychology
Undergraduate 3
12/10/2012

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Term
nominal
Definition
used to name, categorize, or classify
Term
ordinal
Definition
used to rank order objects or individuals
Term
interval
Definition
used to rank order, and has equal intervals between adjacent numbers
Term
ratio
Definition
fully quantitative, includes rank ordering, equal intervals, and has an absolute zero point
Term
reliability
Definition
the consistency or stability of scores
Term
reliability coefficient
Definition
type of correlation coefficient used as an index of reliability
Term
test‐retest reliability
Definition
consistency of a group of individuals' scores on a test over time
Term
equivalent forms reliability
Definition
consistency of a group of individuals' scores on two version of the same test
Term
internal consistency reliability
Definition
consistency with which items on a test measure a single construct
Term
coefficient (Cronbach's) alpha
Definition
the most frequently used index of internal consistency
Term
Interrater reliability
Definition
the degree of consistency or agreement between two or more scorers, judges, observers, or raters
Term
Interobserver agreement
Definition
the percentage of time that different observers' ratings are in agreement
Term
variable
Definition
a condition or characteristic that can take on different values or categories
Term
measurement
Definition
the assignment of symbols or numbers to something according to a set of rules
Term
validity
Definition
accuracy of inferences, interpretations, or actions made on the basis of test scores
Term
operationalization
Definition
the way a construct is represented and measured in a particular research study
Term
validation
Definition
gathering of evidence regarding the soundness of inferences made from test scores
Term
content validity
Definition
judgement by experts of the degree to which items, tasks, or questions on a test adequately represent the construct
Term
face validity
Definition
prima facie judgement of whether the items appear to represent the construct and whether the test or instrument looks valid
Term
multidimensional construct
Definition
construct consisting of two or more dimensions; contrasted with a unidimensional construct
Term
factor analysis
Definition
a statistical analysis procedure used to determine the number of dimensions present in a set of items
Term
convergent validity evidence
Definition
validity evidence based on the degree to which the focal test scores correlate with independent measures of the same construct
Term
homogeneity
Definition
the degree to which a set of items measures a single construct
Term
discriminant validity evidence
Definition
validity evidence based on the degree to which the focal test scores do NOT correlate with measures of DIFFERENT constructs
Term
norming group
Definition
the reference group upon which reported reliability and validity evidence is based
Term
sample
Definition
the set of elements selected from a population
Term
element
Definition
the basic unit selected
Term
population
Definition
the full set of elements from which the sample is selected
Term
representative sample
Definition
a sample that represents the population
Term
EPSEM
Definition
equal probability of selection method: sampling method in which each individual element has an equal probability of selection into the sample
Term
statistic
Definition
a numerical characteristic of sample data
Term
parameter
Definition
a numerical characteristic of a population
Term
sampling error
Definition
differences between sample values and the true population parameter
Term
census
Definition
collection of data from everyone in the population
Term
sampling frame
Definition
a list of all the elements in a population
Term
biased sample
Definition
a nonrepresentative sample
Term
proximal similarity
Definition
generalization to people, places, settings, and contexts that are similar to those described in the research study
Term
simple random sampling
Definition
a popular and basic equal probability selection method
Term
stratified random sampling
Definition
division of population elements into mutually exclusive groups and then selection of a random sample from each group
Term
stratification variable
Definition
the variable on which the population elements are divided for the purpose of stratified sampling
Term
proportional stratified sampling
Definition
stratified sampling where the sample proportions are made to be the same as the population proportions on the stratification variable
Term
disproportional stratified sampling
Definition
stratified sampling where the sample proportions are made to be different from the population proportions on the stratification variable
Term
cluster random sampling
Definition
sampling method where clusters are randomly selected
Term
cluster
Definition
a collective type of unit that includes multiple elements
Term
one-stage cluster sampling
Definition
clusters are randomly selected and all the elements in the selected clusters constitute the sample
Term
two-stage cluster sampling
Definition
clusters are randomly selected, and a random sample of elements is drawn from each of the selected clusters
Term
systematic sampling
Definition
the sampling method where one determines the sampling interval (k), randomly selects an element between 1 and k, and then selects every kth element.
Term
sampling interval
Definition
the population size divided by the desired sample size; it's symbolized by the letter k
Term
periodicity
Definition
problematic situation in systematic sampling that can occur if there is a cyclical pattern in the sampling frame
Term
convenience sampling
Definition
use of people who are readily available, volunteer, or are easily recruited for inclusion in a sample
Term
quota sampling
Definition
a researcher decides on the desired sample sizes or quotas for groups identified for inclusion in the sample, followed by convenience sampling from the groups
Term
purposive sampling
Definition
a researcher specifies the characteristics of the population of interest and then locates individuals who have those characteristics
Term
snowball sampling
Definition
each sampled person is asked to identify other potential participants with the inclusion characteristic
Term
random selection
Definition
selection of participants using a random sampling method
Term
random assignment
Definition
placement of participants into experimental conditions on the basis of a chance process
Term
mixed sampling
Definition
use of a combination of quantitative and qualitative sampling methods
Term
descriptive statistics
Definition
the type of statistical analysis focused on describing, summarizing, or explaining a set of data
Term
inferential statistics
Definition
the type of statistical analysis focused on making inferences about populations based on sample data
Term
frequency distribution
Definition
data arrangement in which the frequencies of each unique data value is shown
Term
bar graph
Definition
graph that uses vertical bars to represent the data values of a categorical variable
Term
histogram
Definition
graph depicting frequencies and distribution of a quantitative variable
Term
line graph
Definition
a graph relying on the drawing of one or more lines
Term
scatterplot
Definition
a graphical depiction of of the relationship between two quantitative variables
Term
mode
Definition
the most frequently occurring number
Term
median
Definition
the center point in an ordered set of numbers
Term
mean
Definition
the arithmetic average
Term
variance
Definition
the average deviation of data values from their mean in squared units
Term
range
Definition
the highest number minus the lowest number
Term
standard deviation
Definition
the square root of variance
Term
normal distribution
Definition
a theoretical distribution that follows the 68,95,99.7% rule
Term
68,95,99.7% rule
Definition
rule stating percentage of cases fall within 1, 2, and 3 standard deviations from the mean on a normal distribution
Term
z-score
Definition
a score that has been transformed into standard deviation units
Term
unstandardized difference between means
Definition
the difference between two means in the variables' natural units
Term
Cohen's d
Definition
the difference between two means in standard deviation units
Term
effect size indicator
Definition
index of magnitude or strength of a relationship or difference between means
Term
correlation coefficient
Definition
index indicating the strength and direction of linear relationship between two quantitative variables
Term
negative correlation
Definition
correlation in which values of two variables tend to move in opposite directions
Term
positive correlation
Definition
correlation in which values of two variables tend to move in the same direction
Term
curvilinear relationship
Definition
a nonlinear (curved) relationship between two quantitative variables
Term
curvilinear regression
Definition
the type of regression analysis that can accurately model curved relationships
Term
pearson correlation
Definition
do you know how to calculate it?
Term
regression analysis
Definition
use of one or more quantitative independent variables to explain or predict the values of a single quantitative dependent variable
Term
simple regression
Definition
regression analysis with one depending variable and one dependent variable
Term
multiple regression
Definition
regression analysis with one dependent variable and two or more independent variables
Term
regression equation
Definition
the equation that defines a regression line
Term
regression line
Definition
the line of "best fit" based on a regression equation
Term
y-intercept
Definition
the point at which the regression line crosses the Y (vertical) axis
Term
regression coefficient
Definition
the slope or change in Y given a one unit change in X
Term
partial regression coefficient
Definition
the regression coefficient in a multiple regression equation
Term
contingency table
Definition
table used to examine the relationship between categorical variables
Term
contingency table rates
Definition
the percentage of people in a group that have a particular characteristic
Term
sampling distribution
Definition
the theoretical probability distribution of the values of a statistic that would result if you select all possible samples of a particular size from a population
Term
sampling distribution of the mean
Definition
the theoretical probability distribution of the means of all possible samples of a particular size are selected from a population
Term
standard error
Definition
the standard deviation of a sampling distribution
Term
test statistic
Definition
a statistic that follows a known sampling distribution and is used in significance testing
Term
estimation
Definition
the branch of inferential statistics focused on obtaining estimates of the values of population parameters
Term
point estimation
Definition
use of the value of a sample statistic as one's estimate of the value of a population parameter
Term
interval estimation
Definition
placement of a range of numbers around a point estimate
Term
confidence interval
Definition
an interval estimate inferred from sample data that has a certain probability of including the true population parameter
Term
alternative hypothesis
Definition
the logical opposite of the null hypothesis
Term
alpha level
Definition
the point at which one would reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis
Term
independent samples t test
Definition
the significance test of the difference between two means that uses the t probability distribution
Term
critical region
Definition
the area on a null hypothesis sampling distribution where the observed value of the statistic, if it fell in this area, would be considered a rare event
Term
probability value (p value)
Definition
the likelihood of the observed value (or a more extreme value) of a statistic, if the null hypothesis were true. if this is less than the alpha level then you can reject the null hypothesis
Term
statistically significant
Definition
conclusion that an observed finding would be very unlikely if the null hypothesis were true
Term
practical significance
Definition
claim made when a statistically significant finding seems large enough to be important
Term
clinical significance
Definition
a type of practical significance
Term
effect size indicators
Definition
an index of magnitude or strength of relationship
Term
partial eta squared
Definition
the amount of variance in the dependent variable uniquely explained by a single categorical independent variable
Term
nondirectional alternative hypothesis
Definition
an alternative hypothesis that includes the != sign
Term
directional alternative hypothesis
Definition
an alternative hypothesis that includes a < or >
Term
statistical power
Definition
the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false
Term
logic of hypothesis testing
Definition
1. state null and alternative
2. set alpha level (.05)
3. select the statistical test to be used
4. conduct statistical test, get p value
5. compare p to alpha level
Term
type I error
Definition
rejection of a true null hypothesis (false positive)
Term
type II error
Definition
failure to reject a false null hypothesis (false negative)
Term
t test for correlation coefficients
Definition
statistical test used to determine if a correlation coefficient is statistically significant
Term
degrees of freedom
Definition
the number of values that are "free to vary"; it's used when computing a statistic to be used in inferential statistics
Term
one way analysis of variance
Definition
statistical test used when you have one quantitative DV and one categorical IV
Term
two way analysis of variance
Definition
statistical test used when you have one quantitative DV and two categorical IVs
Term
ANOVA
Definition
analysis of variance (know how to calculate)
Term
post hoc tests
Definition
follow-up test to one-way ANOVA when the categorical IV has three or more levels; used to determine which pairs of means are significantly different
Term
analysis of covariance
Definition
statistical test used when you have one quantitative DV and a mixture of categorical and quantitative IVs (the quantitative IV is called a "covariate")
Term
ANCOVA
Definition
short for analysis of covariance
Term
one way repeated measures ANOVA
Definition
statistical test used when you have one quantitative DV and one repeated measures IV
Term
t test for regression coefficients
Definition
statistical test used to determine if a regression coefficient is statistically significant
Term
semi‐partial correlation squared
Definition
the amount of variance in the dependent variable uniquely explained by a singly quantitative independent variable
Term
chi‐square test for contingency tables
Definition
statistical test used to determine if a relationship observed in a contingency table is statistically significant
Term
research validity
Definition
truthfulness of inferences made from a research study
Term
statistical conclusion validity
Definition
validity of inferences made about the covariation between the independent and dependent variables
Term
construct validity
Definition
the extent to which a construct is adequately represented by the measures used in a research study
Term
statistically significant
Definition
the observed relationship is probably NOT due to chance
Term
participant reactivity
Definition
research participants' motives and tendencies that affect their perception of the situation and their responses on the dependent variable
Term
demand characteristics
Definition
any of the cues available in an experiment, such as instructions, rumors, or setting characteristics, that influence the responses of the participants
Term
positive self-presentation
Definition
participants' motivation to respond in such a way as to present themselves in the most positive manner
Term
experimenter effects
Definition
actions and characteristics of researchers that influence the responses of participants
Term
internal validity
Definition
the correctness of inferences made by researchers about cause and effect
Term
confounding extraneous variable
Definition
an extraneous variable that co-occurs with the independent variable and affects the dependent variable
Term
constancy
Definition
the influence of an extraneous variable is the same on all of the independent variable groups
Term
equating the groups
Definition
using control strategies to make the influence of extraneous variables constant across the independent variable groups so that the only systematic difference between the groups is due to the influence of the independent variable
Term
history
Definition
any event that can produce the outcome, other than the treatment condition, that occurs during the study before posttest measurement
Term
differential history
Definition
the groups in a multigroup design experience different history events that result in differences on the dependent variable
Term
maturation
Definition
any physical or mental change that occurs with the passage of time and affects the dependent variable scores
Term
instrumentation
Definition
changes from the pretest to posttest in the assessment or the measurement of the dependent variable
Term
testing effect
Definition
changes in a person's score on the second administration of a test resulting from having previously taken the test
Term
regression artifact
Definition
effects that appear to be due to the treatment but are due to the regression to the mean
Term
attrition
Definition
loss of participants because they don't show up or they drop out of the research study
Term
differential attrition
Definition
in a multigroup design, groups become different on an extraneous variable because of differences in the loss of participants across groups
Term
selection
Definition
production of nonequivalent groups because a different selection procedure operates across the groups
Term
additive and interactive effects
Definition
differences between groups are produced because of the combined effect of two or more threats to internal validity
Term
selection-history
Definition
the groups are exposed to the same history event but they react differently because they were not equated
Term
selection-testing
Definition
the groups react to the pretest differently because they were not equated
Term
external validity
Definition
degree to which the study results can be generalized to and across other people, settings, treatments, outcomes, and times
Term
population validity
Definition
degree to which the study results can be generalized to and across the people in the target population
Term
target population
Definition
the large population to which the researcher would like to generalize the study results
Term
accessible population
Definition
the population of research participants that is practically available to the investigator
Term
ecological validity
Definition
the degree to which the results of a study can be generalized across settings or environmental conditions
Term
temporal validity
Definition
the degree to which the results can be generalized across time
Term
seasonal variation
Definition
values on the dependent variables vary by season
Term
treatment variation validity
Definition
the degree to which the results of a study can be generalized across variations in the treatment
Term
outcome validity
Definition
the degree to which the results of a study can be generalized across different but related dependent variables
Term
selection-instrumentation
Definition
the groups react to changes in instrumentation differently because they were not equated
Term
selection-regression artifact
Definition
the groups show different amounts of regression to the mean, because they were not equated
Term
cyclical variation
Definition
any type of systematic up-and-down movement on the dependent variable over time (seasonal)
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