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Research Methods in Psychology
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Psychology
Undergraduate 2
04/28/2016

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Term
What does "Quasi" mean?
Definition
"Almost"

-almost a true experiment
-to some degree, in some manner, virtual, in some significant sense or degree
Term
True Experiment
Definition
-An intervention (1 level of the IV)
-an appropriate comparison or control group (another level of IV)
-High degree of control
--> randomization
--> control of all conditions of the experiment
Term
What distinguishes quasi experiment from a true experiment?
Definition
Lack of full control
Term
What are the threats to internal validity? (List all of them)
Definition
-History
-Maturation
-Testing
- Instrumentation
- Regression
- Subject Attrition
- Selection
- Additive Effects with Selection
Term
History (threat to internal validity)
Definition
any past experience you've had
Term
Maturation (threat to internal validity)
Definition
Just because time goes by, things change across time

-Ex: woman in case study w/ $ problems; son acting out etc. --> all this could change over time
Term
Testing (threat to internal validity)
Definition
Taking a test has effect on all subsequent testing. Testing will affect everything else that happens.

If give test now (Ex: Beck Depression Test)-->give test later = affect results of later testing
Term
Instrumentation (threat to internal validity)
Definition
changes in your instruments

-Ex: tests, machines, computers

could be new additions of test (something different any tie);

could be something changed with same instrument (Ex: computer really new 1st test, then time passed, not as new and therefore screen not as bright at the time of the second test).
Term
Regression (threat to internal validity)
Definition
go back to mean

extreme scores regress tower their mean

Ex: fantasy football. Regression to mean does not mean the regression to the mean of the NFL, but rather regression to individual mean (how that person typically does on average)

Ex: An "A" student fails a test. Chances are their score will jump quite a bit the next test. Regression to YOUR individual mean.
Term
Subject Attrition (threat to internal validity)
Definition
selective and mechanical subject loss
Term
Selection (threat to internal validity)
Definition
placement of participants in groups is not random
Term
Additive Effects with Selection (threat to internal validity)
Definition
- selection-history
- selection-maturation
- selection-instrumentation
- selection- regression in the mean
Term
What does the true experiment fail to solve for?
Definition
1. Contamination

2. Experimenter Expectancy

3. Novelty Effects
Term
In what ways is contamination an issue in true experiments? (explain each)
Definition
1) Resentment: people get upset if they don't receive the best/ real treatment

2) Rivalry: people want to prove that they are in the better group

3) Diffusion of treatments:
Term
Experimenter Expectancy
Definition
-what is it the the experimenter wants to happen

-not solved for by true experiment
Term
In what ways does a true experiment not solve for novelty effects? (explain each)
Definition
1. Enthusiasm: excited about study and want to do well

2. Disruption: "not going to try very hard" --> throw wrench in experiment

3. Hawthorne Effect:
a) no matter how conditions are altered, productivity is increased
b) know being observed and change behavior as a result
c) Two potential thought processes behind this
i. They care!
ii. They're judging me!--> boss watching, won't let me get to me
Term
What difficulties are there in conducting a true experiment in Natural Settings?
Definition
1. Obtaining permission from people in authority

2. Obtaining participants
a) Self-selected samples

3. Randomization
a) Perception that randomization is "unfair"
b) Ethics of the no-treatment control
Term
Alternatives to No-Treatment Control
Definition
1) Alternate order of treatments

2) Use of established treatments as a control

3) Wait-list control

4) Treatment as usual control
Term
Quasi-Experiment

1) definition

2) characteristics
Definition
1) Procedures that resemble characteristics of true experiments, for example, that some type of intervention or treatment is used and a comparison is provided, but are lacking in the degree of control that is found in true experiments.

2)
a) Has an IV and DV
b) Includes comparison group
c) Lacks full control
i. Lacks Randomization: this is hallmark of quasi-experiment
ii. Lacks tight control of experimental conditions

3) Use a true experiment if at all possible in order to make clear cause-effect
Term
Why should we use a Quasi-Experiment?
Definition
1) Broader questions with broader populations

2) External validity--does the intervention "work" in the real world

3) Some hypotheses can't be tested with a true experiment

4) Translational Research: take experiment in lab and translate into real world
Term
List the various types of Quasi-Experiments
Definition
1) One Group Pre-Test Post-Test

2) Nonequivalent Control Group Design

3) Simple Interrupted Time Series

4) Time Series with Nonequivalent Control Group
Term
One Group Pre-Test Post-Test
Definition
O1-Pretest
X1-Intervention to Treatment
O2-Posttest

O1 X O2

-No control group at all

-BAD CHOICE for an experiment
--> what Dr. does. --Ex: take temp., gives meds... see back in few days and take temp again. compare pre and post tests to see if change (did temp. go down?)

- most commonly done; basis for all others
Term
Nonequivalent Control Group Design
Definition
Quasi-experimental procedure in which a comparison is made between control and treatment groups that have been established on some basis other than through random assignment of participants to groups.

- Compare intervention to a "like" control group but without randomization

O1 X O2 (has intervention)
O1 O2 (no intervention) want to see difference in the two O2's compared

Ex: New peer social support program for sev. mentally ill.
- Intervention group: clubhouse A -nonintervention group: clubhouse B
-pretest for social interaction skills, then intervene with clubhouse A but not clubhouse B
Term
What is the Nonequivalent control group design vulnerable to?
Definition
1) Selection-history
2) Selection-instrumentation
3) Selection-regression to the mean
4) Selection-maturation
5) regression
6) Expectancy, Contamination, Novelty effects
Term
Interrupted Time-Series Design
Definition
Simple Interrupted Time-Series Design
O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 X O6 O7 O8 O9 O10

Time Series with Nonequivalent Control group
O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 X O6 O7 O8 O9 O10
--------------------------------------
O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8 O9 O10

1) Multiple observations before intervention
2) Multiple observations after intervention
3) Comparison of baseline before and after intervention

-Ex: Effect of Honor Contract: when implement honor contract, cases of cheating went from 130-->~ 60. Huge drop indicates honor contract= effective

-Good but has NOT shown cause and effect--> ideal= repeat study multiple times (in this ex: = study at numerous different colleges and compare results)

-must be abrupt change w/ intervention

-this design= used regularly in business
Ex: not selling enough product--> new add campaign--> see if have change in sales DV= units sold (could be yearly, monthly, daily)
Term
Threats to Internal Validity associated with Simple Interrupted Time Series Design
Definition
1) History, especially Cyclical change
-seasonal variations

2) Instrumentation
- New measures are often used with new programs/ interventions

3) Maturation, testing, regression to the mean all well controlled by obtaining a baseline
Term
Time Series with Nonequivalent Control Group
Definition
Quasi-experimental procedure that improves on the validity of a simple interrupted time-series design by including a nonequivalent control group; both treatment and comparison groups are observed for a period of time both before and after the treatment

1) Multiple pre and post tests

2) Intervention and Control group

3) Rules out history and instrumentation effects
Term
External Validity
Definition
-Can I generalize my results?

1) As usual, related to representativeness of the sample
a. Do the results generalize to the larger population
b. Are the effects of the intervention the same or different for different groups?
2) Replication is the best test for external validity
Term
What is the best test for external validity?
Definition
Replication
Term
Is a Quasi-Experiment (or True Experiment) Valid?
Definition
1) Researcher as detective
a. consider all threats to internal and external validity
2) Control and test for threats as much as possible
3) Note existing threats in limitations
Term
Program Evaluation
Definition
Research that seeks to determine whether a change proposed by an institution, government agency, or other unit of society is needed and likely to have an effect as planned, and, when implemented, to have the desired effect at a reasonable cost.

1) Are human services effective?
-->Ex: given to charity. Do you know that that $ helped? no.
2) Perhaps the most applied of all research

3) Key Questions:
a. What are the needs?
b. What are the processes involved in program implementation?
c. What are the outputs
d. What are the outcomes
e. How efficient is the delivery of services?
Term
Social Experiments
Definition
- Large scale, real-world tests
- often more significant consequences
- often greater investment of time, money, effort
- often driven by or affected by political concerns
--> ex: Does adding extra police reduce crime? (5% of adolescence create 60% of crime)
- However, the outcome of social experiments cannot be "truly" evaluated.--> usually time lag in implementation, too many variables,
Term
Applied Research (Definition and Types)
Definition
Examination of psychological principles and treatments in real world settings

Types:
1) Case studies
2) Single Subject experiments
3) Quasi-experimental designs
4) Clinical trials
5) Program evaluation
Term
Case Study
Definition
1) Intensive description and analysis of a single case
a. does not use experimental techniques
b. Low degree of control
c. Based on clinical impressions
d. Can include empirical data

2) Exploratory method

3) contributes to development of hypotheses and theories
a. Cannot test them directly
b. Can sometimes disprove them
Term
Phineas Gage
Definition
-working on railroad, explosives go-off, metal rod shoots all the way through cheek and up and out of top of head. Didn't die but parts of pre-frontal lobe= destroyed. (Pre-frontal lobe associated with ability to control emotions, and not do stupid things)

-After the accident, he became much more likely to be profane, to swear, etc. Lost ability to stop self from saying those things etc.

-This is why people with ADHD say things they shouldn't say, because signals in pre-frontal lobe are not firing quick enough.
Term
Advantages of Case Study
Definition
1) Develop new ideas or hypotheses

2) Theory development (challenge and support)
-"Counterinstance"-- a case that defies a generally accepted principle
- Support

3) Intensive detailed information-- not usually available in study of a group
- Idiographic approach (study the individual)
- Nomothetic approach (seeks to determine the typical or average of a group)

4) Trying out new techniques or clinical innovations

5) Very rare events
- Brain injury
- Feral children
- Lesch-Nyhan

6) Can be more compelling and meaningful
Term
Disadvantages of Case Study
Definition
1) Can't make causal inferences

2) Observer bias

3) Experimenter bias

4) Threats to external validity--is it generalizable?
--Sometimes yes, sometimes no

5) The danger of the testimonial
--notoriously awful
Term
Disadvantages of Case Study
Definition
1) Can't make causal inferences

2) Observer bias

3) Experimenter bias

4) Threats to external validity--is it generalizable?
--Sometimes yes, sometimes no

5) The danger of the testimonial
--notoriously awful
Term
When to use the case study
Definition
1) new, rare, or unstudied phenomena or treatment

2) Initial data

3) Complement the nomothetic approach
Term
When NOT to use case study
Definition
1) To establish causal inferences

2) To try to make statements about groups

3) To try to prove a theory or test a hypothesis

4) To demonstrate the effectiveness of an intervention
Term
Single Subject (or Small-n) Experiments
Definition
Manipulating IV and analyzing.

-only use when can do something and see an immediate change (very hard to do effectively)

-Skinnerian analysis of behavior

-Apply experimental designs to a single subject or small group of single subjects
-Manipulate an IV within the subject
- Examine changes in behavior (the DV)
- Possible to establish causal inferences

1) first establish a stable baseline (meaning nothing really changing; typically 5 units at minimum)
a. want 5+ units b/c want to show stability
b. If don't have stable-baseline, you don't know if the intervention works. To ensure not by chance; if not stable, have to wait unit it is stable
c. IV= intervention; DV= behavior
Term
2 Types of Single Subject Experiments
Definition
1) Reversal Design a.k.a ABAB Design

2) Multiple Baselin
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