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Definition
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| 3 Alternatives to studying behavior scientifically |
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Definition
| Astrology, Phrenology, Philosophy |
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| A process for understanding nature |
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| Three steps of the scientific method |
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Definition
| Gather data, form hypothesis, test hypothesis |
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| 3 requirements of an experiment |
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Definition
must be repeatable
must be fair
must test the right hypothesis |
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| Statistics compare______ with ______ |
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Definition
| A mathematical test that compares Experiments with Theory |
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Definition
The burden of proof is on the person making the claim
Extraordinary claims require Extraordinary proof |
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| The two sides of most scientific debates |
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Definition
| Majority opinion and Minority opinion |
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| How do we settle a scientific debate? |
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Definition
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Definition
Finds general rules
Collects objective evidence
Public
Skeptical
Makes verifiable statements
Open-minded
Creative
Productive |
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| How Psychology is a science (corollaries to qualities of science) |
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Definition
Seeks theories and laws (operant conditioning)
Uses objective measures
Hypotheses are often disconfirmed
Questions common sense and existing theories
Examines many claims
Research requires creativity
Research is published
Knowledge grows at an impressive rate |
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| 3 Key assumptions of Science |
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Definition
Operationalism:
Objective and accurate measurement of variables
Determinism:
Any event can be explained by causal laws; there's a reason (cause) for everything.
Invariance:
Causal laws don't change. |
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| The advantages of (psychology) being a science |
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Definition
Objective information
Self-correcting nature of science
Peer Review Process
Building on previous knowledge |
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| Reply to this critique: There can’t be a science of the mind because science relies on physical evidence. |
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Definition
| We need physical evidence, but we can make inferences about invisible mental states |
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Definition
| A mental state that cannot be directly observed or manipulated, such as love, intelligence, and thirst |
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| Reply to this Critique: Psychology is not a science because rules of behavior do not apply for everyone. |
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Definition
| Reply: Few rules apply to everyone or every situation. |
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| Reply to this Critique: People are too complex to be studied scientifically. |
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Definition
| Reply: They react to being observed (but that's a problem for other sciences as well, even physics). |
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Term
| Psychology doesn’t perfectly predict behavior, but … |
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Definition
We demand more specificity from psychologists than from other scientists.
Asking what an individual will do is like asking a physicist what will happen to a particular drop of water in the ocean. |
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| ____________ explains, even behavior that obeys simple laws may still be quite hard to predict. |
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Definition
| Chaos (complexity) theory |
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| ___%of psychological research done on humans |
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Definition
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| In an ethical study _____ outweighs ______ |
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Definition
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| Human Studies are reviewed by |
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Definition
| IRB Institutional Review Boards |
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| Animal Studies are reviewed by |
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Definition
| Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) |
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| Federal law Title 45, Section 46.106 (b) |
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Definition
Each institution sets up review committee
Each participant gives informed consent |
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Term
| APA Standards: Rights of Human Participants |
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Definition
Participants are Volunteers
Ability to withdraw at any time
Informed consent
Debriefing
Confidentiality
Deception: only when necessary
Seek advice from others and employ all possible safeguards |
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| APA Standards: Investigator’s Responsibilities |
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Definition
Subordinates behave ethically
Anticipate and prevent harm
Get proper approvals for doing study
Ensuring participants’ confidentiality
Detect harm and undo that harm
Debrief participants |
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Term
| How was the Milgram study ethical? |
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Definition
“Bad outcome” not foreseeable.
Milgram probed for signs of harm and tried to undo any harm.
The evidence suggests that the study wasn’t harmful.
Participants were fully debriefed.
Enormous benefits. |
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Term
| Milgram: The bad outcome was not foreseeable |
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Definition
If participants had stopped at 45 volts, there would have been no controversy.
Experts predicted that fewer than 1% of people would go along. |
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Term
| How was the Milgram study unethical? |
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Definition
Deception
No informed consent
Participants experienced distress
Participants did not feel free to quit the study at any time |
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Term
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Definition
Internal Validity
External Validity
Construct Validity |
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| When to use Internal Validity |
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Definition
| Those who want to use psychology to create theoretical models of behavior, influence behavior, or who want to model experimental physics. |
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Term
| Illusory Correlation and example |
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Definition
Seeing a relationship that doesn’t exist
Example: Changing multiple choice questions |
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Term
| 8 threats to internal validity |
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Definition
Maturation
History
Testing
Instrumentation
Regression
Selection
Selection by maturation interaction
Mortality |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to generalize to a broad range of people and situations. |
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Definition
| Correctly concluding that a factor causes a certain effect |
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| When do we need External Validity |
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Definition
When trying to describe what most people do.
When extrapolating to the general population. |
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Term
| Why do people’s conclusions often lack external validity? |
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Definition
Sample too small
Sample bias |
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Term
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Definition
| If people help on a task, they think most people would help; if they don’t help, they think most people wouldn’t help. |
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| How can attempts to rule out threats to internal validity hurt external validity? |
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Definition
Reducing selection threat at the expense of not studying a heterogeneous group of participants
Reducing history threat at expense of not studying participants in a naturalistic setting |
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Term
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Definition
| The degree to which a study actually measures and manipulates the variables that the researcher claims to be measuring. |
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| When do we need construct validity |
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Definition
If you are going to make conclusions about people’s mental states
It is especially important when creating questionnaires and personality measures |
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Term
| Why do conclusions often lack construct validity? |
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Definition
| We can only infer that we have measured or manipulated mental constructs. These inferences can be wrong. |
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Term
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Definition
| “giving” animals human characteristics |
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Definition
| Not responding like one really would, but instead responding in a way that would make a better impression. |
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Term
| If the goal of a study is generalizing to the population, then the study needs _____ validity. |
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Definition
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Term
If the goal of a study is making claims
about mental constructs, the the study needs ____ validity. |
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Definition
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Term
| If the goal of a study is making cause-effect claims, the the study needs ____ validity. |
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Definition
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Term
| The purpose of research is to |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| a tentative statement that proposes a possible explanation to some phenomenon or event. Needs to be testable and explain a relationship between two or more variables. |
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| You can derive new research ideas from |
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Definition
Theory
Previous research
Personal insights or Common sense |
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Term
| Ways to question Internal Validity |
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Definition
Can you identify which variable came first?
Can you rule out other causes?
Can you change a correlational study into an experiment?
Can you create a small scale model of the real life situation? |
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Term
| Changes to Construct Validity |
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Definition
Different manipulations
Different measures
Double-blind studies |
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Term
| Changes to External Validity |
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Definition
Different types of participants
Different amounts of treatment
More realistic stimulus materials
More realistic settings
Longer-term effects
Moderator variables |
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Term
| Previous Research: The Direct Replication |
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Definition
| An “exact copy” done because of concerns about |
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Term
| Previous Research: The Systematic Replication |
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Definition
| A slight modification of the original study |
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| Previous Research: The Conceptual Replication |
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Definition
| A replication that usually uses different measures and/or manipulations than the original |
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Term
| In evaluating a hypothesis you must make look at these 4 factors |
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Definition
| Ethical, Beneficial, Testable, Reasonable |
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