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| dominated behavioral science for decades (1930's) - verificationism, cognitive meaningfulness, context-free definitions. |
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| The principle advanced by Karl Propper that a theoretical system is scientific only if stated in such a way that it can, if incorrect, be falsified by empirical tests. Ani-positivism : not enough to simply back up claims. |
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| groups construct knowledge for one another, collaboratively creating a small culture of shared artifacts with shared meanings. When one is immersed within a culture of this sort, one is learning all the time about how to be a part of that culture on many levels. |
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| knowledge is grounded in context and therefore changes. |
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evolutionary epistemology |
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| fror the evolutionary epistimologist, all theories are provisional regardless of the volume of empirical testing they have undergone. Applies the theory of natural selection to the growth and evolution of theories and knowledge. |
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Pierce's Four ways of Knowing |
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| Pragmatism, Method of Tenacity, Method of Authority, A priori Method. |
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| practical consequences in values and use this as the standard to evaluate truthfulness. |
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| hold on to cherished beleifs |
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| people turn to experts to tell them what to beleive |
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| Our own individual powers of logic to make own decisions unaffected by authority. |
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Rhetoric of justification |
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| style of presenting/persuasion.technical definitions, quantitive analysis, hypotheses and theories |
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| using images, greater justification. Theories should 'make sense' |
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| sceintists are aware of the beauty of their empirical relationships. |
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| can there be an objectively defined 'truth'? Antirealists |
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Descriptive Research Oreintation |
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Relational Research Orientation |
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| observations from descriptive research and look for relationships. |
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Experimental Research Orientation |
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| can predict the criterion |
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| an abstact variable, constructed from ideas or images, which serves as an explanatory term. |
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| the ability to repeat or replicate a scientific observation. |
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| the meaning of a variable in terms of the operations necessary to measure it in any concrete situation, or in terms of the experimental methods involved in its determination. |
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| accepted truths justified on the basis of empirical observations |
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| inductive-statistical reasoning- go from a bunch of results to some probobalistic generalizations. |
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deductive-statistical explanation |
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| universal laws. - conclusions that have to be true. |
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| Initial thinking, plausibility ad acceptability |
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| general defense, confirmation of ideas, rejectability of the null hypothesis |
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| in common: can both be explicit or vague, fall back on hidden assumptions and give direction to what is observed. Different: theory is large scale, a hypothesis is a small scale sectional map and is more amenable to empirical confrontation. |
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| 1. modifying a classic relationship 2. Using a case study for ispiration 3. Making sesnse of a paradoxical situation 4. metaphorical thinking. |
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| examples: monkey experiment and ulcers. garduate student discovering collapsed stars. Both discovered when studying a different phenomenon. |
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working hypothesis should..... |
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| be coherent, parimonious, correspond with reality, falsifiable, |
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| "cut away' what is unnecessary or unweildly. "What can be explained in fewer principles is explained needlessly by more" |
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| Reaction to Decartes "I think therfore I am", positivism emphasized the need for backing up claims with empirical research. Often called the "Bucket theory" |
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| Duhem Quine Thesis: theories evolve, should be adjusted, not thrown out. |
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| the hypothesis that there is no realtionship between two or more variables. Ho |
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| The experimental hypothesis, H1 |
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| Rejecting Null Hypotheis, when it is in fact true. alpha |
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| Failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is in fact false. (more frequent) beta |
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| the strenth of the relationship or the degree os departure from the null hypothesis. |
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| 1. autonomy 2. beneficence and nonmalefocence 3. Justice 4. Trust 5. Felcitiy and scientific integrity |
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| the degree to which thereis consitency or stability |
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| appropriateness or meaningfulness. Are we measuring what it is we think we are measuring? |
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| the effects of uncontrolled variables that cannot be specifically identified. Cancel out with repeated measurement. |
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| biases - do not cancel out. When they are constant, thy are difficult to notice..... example of the thermometer. |
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| take half of the items and corrlelate with other half. Not made for all tests (not for power tests or for speed tests) |
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| prophesy formula- how many items you need to boost up reliability? |
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| measure of internal consistency and is used when measure uses dichotomous choices. |
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| the average of all possible split halves. |
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| consistency between raters |
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| calling upon experts for content. Courts deemed it useful |
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| Is it predicting the outcomes that we think it is? Concurrent: Test and criterion at the same time. Predictive: criterion at future date. |
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| The degree to which the test is a measure of the characteristic of interest. Convergent: correlate with measures of similar constructs. Discriminate: correlate with measures of different constructs. |
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| a matrix used to measure construct validity |
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relationship between reliability and validity |
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| strong validity and poor reliability cannot happen. |
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| physical traces, archival records, nonreactive observations |
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| classification of text into categories (coding) |
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| non random sample of judges. |
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Ways to maximize crdibility and serendipity |
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| distinguising between events and states, time sampling, behavioral sampling, condensed account and expanded account. |
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bias in ethnographic research |
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| noninteractional artifacts (systematic bias due to mind of the observer), interpreter bias (did I make interpretation errors? ), oberver bias (did I make observation errors? ) |
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| descriptive words - check off those present. |
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| have to choose one statement or another presented in pairs (internal verus external locus testing) |
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| general impression error - let a general impression influence a specific impression. |
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| judgements on a five poit scale |
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| put an x on a continuum (eg: happy, sad) |
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| odd numbers so that there is a neutral point. After 5 or 7 categories, you are not gaining much in terms of reliability or validity. |
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| make scalings relative to one another. Who is the best student? Then rate all other students relative to that student. |
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| leniency, severity, central tendency, logical errors(will give out similar ratings for items that they beleive to be logically related) |
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| quantity from a high amount to its opposite. |
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| from one extreme to zero. |
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| tend to be more reliable ad valid. Combination of measurements teating for the same construct. |
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