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| The four goals of research |
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| Description, explanation, prediction, control |
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| (Science characteristic) Any principle can be tested to see if it can be shown to be false |
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| Intuition, rationalism (logical), tenacity (always been this way), authority, empiricism, a priori (reasoned argument), experience |
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| Six characteristics of science |
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| Objective, data driven, empirical, replicable, verifiable, public |
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| Form of critical thinking; develop clear/specific questions, collect/assess relevant info, identify assumptions/perspectives, generate solutions to problems |
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| No empiricism, not objective, not verifiable, not public |
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| APA's seven ethical guidelines |
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| Aspirational goals, ethical standards (right/wrong), beneficience/nonmaleficence (less harm, ^benefits), fidelity/responsibility (benefit community, good interactions), integrity (honest), justice (how affecting others), respect for rights/dignity |
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| Nature of study, potential risks, confidentiality/anonymity?, potential gain from research, voluntary nature of research |
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| set of legal principles to ensure fair/ethical treatment of research participants |
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| Active vs. passive deception |
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| Misinforming vs. not providing complete information |
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| Eliminating negative aftereffects from experiment during debriefing (if after, called "compensatory follow-up" like therapy/counseling) |
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| Applied vs. basic/theoretical research |
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| Addressing practical questions vs. testing/expanding theory, with no direct application intended |
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| Overt vs. covert behavior |
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| Can be measured (frequency, rate/duration, or unobtrusively) vs. self-report or physiological |
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| Each person in a population has the same chance of being included in a sample as every other person |
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| Selecting every nth member from the sampling frame |
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| Stratified random sampling |
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| Groups of interest are identified, then participants are selected at random from these groups |
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| A number of groups/clusters are identified in a population (classrooms, e.g.), then some clusters are randomly selected and everyone is used |
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| Using whatever participants can conveniently be studied |
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| Main problem with nonprobability samples |
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| Not generalizable because nonrepresentative |
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| Subgroups (usually convenience samples) are identified and a specified number of individuals from each group are included (get them wherever you can find them) |
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| Purposive/judgmental sampling |
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| Participants selected because of some desirable characteristics, like expertise in some area |
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| Participant selected who then identifies further participants that he/she knows (useful for finding hidden populations) |
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| Causal relationship between independent and dependent variable is demonstrated without interference by extraneous variables |
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| Subset of a population from which a sample is actually selected. |
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| Distantly past events are remembered as being more recent than they really are |
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| Temporally accessible information |
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| Memories available for retrieval only when cued by exposure to information that cues those memories (affected by media) |
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| Tendency to agree with assertion of a question, regardless of its content |
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| Satisfied with first acceptable response to question or on a task, even if not best response |
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| Search for best response to a question, even if not true regarding themselves |
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| Tendency to give same answer to questions, regardless of content |
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| Chain-referral sampling technique; person from population of interest identifies another person from population, then second person refers yet another, etc. etc. |
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| Three forms of (general) sampling |
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| Situation (which locations?), time (what time of day, what day?), subject (if too many people, who?) |
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| Finding locations that attract members of population of interest to get information from these people at those locations |
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| Respondent-driven sampling |
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| Member of population recruits others for researcher (often with incentive like payment) |
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| Two problems with correlational studies |
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| Third variable, directionality |
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| Correlational analyses/stats vs. studies/reserch methods |
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| Use correlations as statistical approach, but research design could be experimental vs. studying factors that might be related to each other (no causation) |
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| Pearson product-moment correlation |
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| Bivariate correlational measure that indicates the degree to which two quantitative variables are related |
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| Failure to spot a real relationship between variables because obscured by range of scores on at least one variable |
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| Coefficient of determination |
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| Possible problems affecting "r" |
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| Nonlinearity, restricted range, heterogeneous subgroups |
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| Variable accounts for relationship between two other variables |
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| Specifies when (or for whom) effects will hold |
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| Systematic vs. naturalistic observation |
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| In a laboratory vs. in environment (and without anyone knowing) |
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| Particularistic research vs. universalistic research |
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| Specific time/place (not generalizable) vs. general question beyond where/when research itself occurs |
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| Continuous real-time measurement |
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| Measurement of duration of behaviors as they occur (How long does it last?) |
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| Measurement of occurrence of a behavior by selecting specific points in time and recording whether behavior is occurring at that instant (Is it occurring right now?) |
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| Measurement of behavior by noting whether it has occurred within specified time interval(s) (Has it occurred between ___ and ___?) |
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| Cluster sampling of behaviors |
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| Recording behaviors in specified, extended time periods --> biased estimates of how often behaviors occur overall |
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| Putting too much stock in too little observations |
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| See relationship you expect to see even when it doesn't exist |
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| Remembering confirming but not unconfirming instances |
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| People being observed act differently than normal because know being observed |
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| People act differently in research study because know being observed |
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| Observer changes criteria for recording behaviors over time |
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| Three rules for causation |
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| a precedes b, a covaries with b (b occurs when a does), a is most plausible cause of b (other potential causes ruled out) ; temporal precedence, covariance, internal validity |
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| Participant acts differently from normal after picking up clues as to the apparent purpose of the study |
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| Experimenter bias--characteristics of researcher (age, sex, race) affect participant's behavior |
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| Experimenter bias--researcher's attitudes affect participant's behavior |
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