Term
Reliability vs. validity:
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Definition
Reliability refers to the confidence we can place on the measuring instrument to give us the same numeric value when the measurement is repeated on the same object. Validity on the other hand means that our measuring instrument actually measures the property it is supposed to measure. Reliability of an instrument does not warranty its validity."
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| Basic vs. applied science: |
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Basic Science is concerned with the process of discovery. Basic scientists seek to discover new knowledge and information without the primary concern of how the knowledge they create might be used.
Applied Science takes information that already exists and utilizes it for the solution of an existing problem. |
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| Four assumptions of science: |
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Definition
1.True, physical universe exists
2.Universe is primarily orderly
3.The principles that define the functioning of the universe can be discovered
4.All ideas are tentative, potentially changed by new information |
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| Frequency, duration, and intervals methods: |
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| Naturalistic observation: |
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| it is a method where the research very carefully observes and records some behavior or phenomenon, sometimes over a prolonged period, in its natural setting. |
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| Experimental vs. non-experimental research |
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| research conducted in a natural setting in which subjects typically do not know they are in an experiment |
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| A base rate fallacy is committed when a person judges that an outcome will occur without considering prior knowledge of the probability that it will occur. |
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| Random assignment to conditions (or groups) |
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| The tyranny of the senses |
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| Bryson and Hamblin’s (1988) study (MUM effect) |
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| Correlational studies are used to look for relationships between variables. There are three possible results of a correlational study: a positive correlation, a negative correlation, and no correlation. The correlation coefficient is a measure of correlation strength and can range from –1.00 to +1.00. |
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| Advantages and disadvantages of correlational studies |
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Definition
Advantage
1. An advantage of the correlation method is that we can make predictions about things when we know about correlations. If two variables are correlated, we can predict one based on the other. For example, we know that SAT scores and college achievement are positively correlated. So when college admission officials want to predict who is likely to succeed at their schools, they will choose students with high SAT scores.
Disadvantage
1. The problem that most students have with the correlation method is remembering that correlation does not measure cause. Take a minute and chant to yourself: Correlation is not Causation! Correlation is not Causation! I always have my in-class students chant this, yet some still forget this very crucial principle. |
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| Advantages and disadvantages of experiments |
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| Independent variables vs. dependent variables |
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| Experimenter-manipulated vs. experimenter-selected variables |
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| Spallanzani’s (1785) experiment (dog insemination) |
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| Lorge’s (1930) experiment (massed vs. distributed practice) |
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| Asch’s (1952) experiment (presentation order) |
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| Benbow and Stanley’s (1980) study (math gender difference) |
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| Experimental vs. control groups |
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| Supa, Cotzin, and Dallenbach’s (1944) experiment (facial vision) |
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| Paul’s (1966) experiment (speech phobia) |
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| bias introduced by an experimenter whose expectations about the outcome of the experiment can be subtly communicated to the participants in the experiment. |
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| Single-blind vs. double-blind experiments |
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Definition
In single-blind studies, only the patient is not told what is being given. In a double-blind study, only the pharmacist knows; the doctors, nurses, patients, and other health-care staff are not informed. If medically necessary, however, it is always possible to find out what the patient is taking.
Document Actions |
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| Rosenthal and Fode’s (1963) experiment (maze-bright rats) |
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| Sometimes during an experiment, a participant might pick up on some clue or bias from the researcher, the situation, or something about the experiment that gives the participant and idea of what type of response the researcher is looking for. |
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| A statement of the procedures or ways in which a researcher is going to measure behaviors or qualities. |
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| Factorial vs. non-factorial designs |
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| Between-subjects, within-subjects, and “mixed” factorial designs |
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| Levels of an independent variable |
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| Possible outcomes of a 2 x 2 factorial design |
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| Main effects and interactions |
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| Bar graphs vs. line graphs vs. table of means |
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| Chi’s (1978) experiment (chess) |
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| Ex post facto experiment (i.e., a quasi-experiment) |
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| some characteristics of people that can be measured or described but cannot be varied experimentally |
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| scientific instrument used by psychologists; presents visual stimuli for brief exposures. |
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| an analysis of the antecedents and consequences of s particular behavior; usually undertaken before the implementation of a behavioral treatment. |
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use experimental control
by the careful manipulation of an
independent variable on a small number of participant |
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| ABA designs are a type of single-subject design. The purpose of this type of experimental design is to observe changes individual may exhibit as a result of the treatment. |
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| Ayllon’s (1963) experiment (towel hoarding) |
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| Identification of independent and dependent variables in abstracts |
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| Identification of research designs in abstracts |
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Definition
Example 1: What is the Mean of these numbers?
6, 11, 7
Add the numbers: 6 + 11 + 7 = 24
Divide by how many numbers (there are 3 numbers): 24 / 3 = 8
The Mean is 8 |
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| Determine median (precisely using graph) |
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| a measure of central tendency: the middle value when observations are ordered from least to most. |
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Example:
3, 7, 5, 13, 20, 23, 39, 23, 40, 23, 14, 12, 56, 23, 29
In order these numbers are:
3, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14, 20, 23, 23, 23, 23, 29, 39, 40, 56
This makes it easy to see which numbers appear most often.
In this case the mode is 23. |
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Ordering the test scores from least to greatest, we get:
73, 77, 84, 87, 89, 91, 94
highest - lowest = 94 - 73 = 21
Answer:
The range of these test scores is 21 points. |
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| Calculate variance and standard deviation |
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Definition
Standard Deviation
The Standard Deviation is a measure of how spread out numbers are.
Its symbol is σ (the greek letter sigma)
The formula is easy: it is the square root of the Variance. So now you ask, "What is the Variance?"
Variance
The Variance is defined as:
The average of the squared differences from the Mean. |
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| n statistics, the concept of the shape of the distribution refers to the shape of a probability distribution and it most often arises in questions of finding an appropriate distribution to use to model the statistical properties of a population, given a sample from that population. The shape of a distribution may be considered either descriptively, using terms such as "J-shaped", or numerically, using quantitative measures such as skewness and kurtosis. |
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Definition
In statistics, a z-score (or standard score) is used to compare means from different normally distributed sets of data. The actual score indicates how many standard deviations an observation is above or below the mean.
How to Calculate a z-score in Statistics thumbnail
Formula for Standard Score (z-score)
In statistics, a z-score (or standard score) is used to compare means from different |
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| Mean and SD for a set of z scores |
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Definition
z = \frac {X-\mu}{\sigma} (6)
X = ExperimentalValue
μ = Mean
σ = StandardDeviation |
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| Convert a Z score into a raw score? |
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| Draw a scatter diagram (scatterplot) |
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| Positive vs. negative correlations |
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| Strong vs. weak correlations |
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Definition
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| Linear vs. curvilinear relationships |
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| A linear relationship is different from a nonlinear/curvilinear relationship because a linear relationship has direct proportionality that causes the dependent variable to change when the independent variable changes, whereas a nonlinear/curvilinear relationship does not have proportionality between the dependent and independent variables (there is not consistent change). In other words, in a linear relationship all the points on the scatter diagram tends to lie near a straight line, while the points in a nonlinear/curvilinear relationship are depicted graphically by anything other than a straight line. |
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| Possible values of a correlation coefficient |
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Definition
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| Computing the correlation coefficient |
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Definition
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| Interpreting correlations |
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| Use regression equation to predict scores |
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Inter-rater: Evaluates reliability among different participants
2. Test- Re-test: Evaluates reliability across time
3. Parallel Forms: Evaluates question that seek to assess the same construct with the out most consistency.
4. Internal Consistency: Evaluates individual questions in comparison with one another for their ability to give consistently appropriate results. |
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Definition
Face Validity: The content of the measure appears to reflect the construct being measured.
Content Validity: The content of the measured is linked to the universe of content that defines the construct.
Predictive Validity: Scores on the measure predict behavior on a criterion measured at a time in the future.
Concurrent Validity: Scores on the measure are related to a criterion measured at the same time (concurrently).
Convergent Validity: Scores on the measure are related to other measures of the same construct.
Discriminant Validity: Scores on the measure are not related to other measures that are theoretically different. |
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| As we all know by now, psychologists like to control things -- in particular, we like to establish as much control as possible when conducting experiments. |
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| A variable which is the common cause o f two things that may falsely appear to be in a causal relationship |
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| Subject variable-subject variable confound |
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| Five basic experimental paradigms |
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Definition
what is to be observed and scrutinized
the kind of questions that are supposed to be asked and probed for
answers in relation to this subject
how these questions are to be structured
how the results of scientific investigations should be interpreted
how is an experiment to be conducted, and what equipment is available to conduct the experiment. |
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| Spontaneous healing, also called spontaneous remission or spontaneous regression, means an unexpected improvement or cure from a disease |
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| The beneficial effect in a patient following a particular treatment that arises from the patient's expectations concerning the treatment rather than from the treatment itself. |
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| Simon and Emmons (1956) experiment (sleep learning) |
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| Experiment on perceptual defense |
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| As its name suggests, the theory of one trial learning states that learning takes place in a single pairing of a response and stimulus and is not strengthened over time by repeated exposure to a stimulus. |
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| Experiment briefs in Ch. 7 |
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| a counterbalancing technique in which the treatment orders are randomized in block such all of the condition are present within the block |
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| Random blocks technique (for matching) |
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| refers to matching subjects |
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| Potential problems associated with repeated measure design |
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| Fatigue vs. practice effects |
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Definition
1. Practice Effects – Occur when subjects get better at the task over time because of practice, so that they perform best in the later conditions.
2. Fatigue Effects – Occur when subjects get worse at the task over time because of fatigue. They might even quit trying and just “go through the motions |
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| This is when having been tested under one condition affects how participants behave in another condition. There are many different kinds of carryover effects. Here are a few of the most important. |
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Definition
1. Practice Effects – Occur when subjects get better at the task over time because of practice, so that they perform best in the later conditions.
2. Fatigue Effects – Occur when subjects get worse at the task over time because of fatigue. They might even quit trying and just “go through the motions |
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| when the participant does not stay during the experiment. |
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| Ethics case studies in Ch. 8 |
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| basically it is about how as a psychologist we must conduct ourselves as professionals |
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| Anonymity vs. confidentiality |
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Confidentiality
Maintaining confidentiality of information collected from research participants means that only the investigator(s) or individuals of the research team can identify the responses of individual subjects; however, the researchers must make every effort to prevent anyone outside of the project from connecting individual subjects with their responses.
Anonymity
Providing anonymity of information collected from research participants means that either the project does not collect identifying information of individual subjects (e.g., name, address, Email address, etc.), or the project cannot link individual responses with participants’ identities. A study should not collect identifying information of research participants unless it is essential to the study protocol. |
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| it is important to treat animals right a during a experiment if you want your experiment to be valid |
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| is a phrase often used in law to indicate that the consent a person gives meets certain minimum standards. As a literal matter, in the absence of fraud, it is redundant. An informed consent can be said to have been given based upon a clear appreciation and understanding of the facts, implications, and future consequences of an action. |
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| When a study or experiment ends, researchers are required to "debrief" participants. In a "debriefing" a researcher explains the purpose of the study, explains the use of deception (if any was used), encourages the participant to ask questions about the study, and allows the researcher to address any harm to the participant that may have resulted from their participation in the study. |
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| is a committee that has been formally designated to approve, monitor, and review biomedical and behavioral research involving humans. They often conduct some form of risk-benefit analysis in an attempt to determine whether or not research should be done. |
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| Major sections of an APA style research report |
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| Citing sources according to APA style |
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| 34/14/2 approximation rule |
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