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| give a numerical value too |
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| psychological constructs (black box approach) |
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| it cannot be observed directly, but if it (i.e. aggression) is present then X (hitting someone) will happen. We can't see inside, but we assume that psychological constructs are linked in a certain way, and then test our theory using what we assume |
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| the set of actions required to measure the construct |
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| from sample to population: predictions can be made about the population though it can't be identified to specific individuals who will produce the expected changes in behavior |
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| all the people that the theory might apply too, for whom the studies are really done |
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| the group tested, drawn from the population |
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| assigning participants randomly into groups; every participant has an equal chance of being selected for a particular condition |
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| when the selection procedures results in an under or over representation of a type (i.e. minority) in the sample |
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| random assignment of stimulus/trials for the participant |
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| i.e. selecting every tenth person from the population, tenth also needs to be random |
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our sample contains the same proportions of different groups as the population
*one type is quota sampling |
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| used by interviewers who are told to interview a certain quota of people (like so many men and so many women) not scientifically organized |
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| opportunity sample or convenience sample |
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| recruit participants that we have access to |
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| participants select themselves in a study, done knowingly and unknowingly |
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| well stratified representative groups who may be asked to participate in several research activities over an extended period of time and are valuable simply because they are so well balanced |
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| meet for a specific objective, which will often be a discussion of a particular issue |
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| occurs when a researcher meets with a key person (i.e. a community leader) conducts an interview and then asks who else might be in a good position to give an opinion, one contact leads to a few more and thus the sample 'snowballs' along |
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| where the change takes place and is measured |
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| must have an independent variable (IV) to control and manipulate, all other variables are eliminated or held constant, as far as practical, the experiment is measured in the dependent variable (DV) |
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| must be controlled or eliminated, these are the variables that might interact with either out IV or DV and therefore cloud the issue of whether the IV did directly affect the DV |
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| Independent Variable (IV) |
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| the controlled and manipulated part of the experiment |
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| defining levels that change how much IV is used or different types of IV |
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| gives the baseline measure when none is given, and is the experiment when given |
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| 2 samples of people that are independent of each other |
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| variables that change with the IV and could be an alternative explanation of changes in the DV |
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| if practice affects only the second measure taken, split the groups and have half do the first then the second and half do the second then the first and average both scores |
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| independent groups/samples/measures |
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| 2 samples of people that are independent of each other |
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| everyone is closely matched with a pair then the pairs are split into a randomly allocated experimental condition and the other goes into the control condition |
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| no group can ever (for certain) have the same level of IV administered |
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| a class confounding variable. a problem with the repeated measures because it allows the participant to get better because they have already done this before |
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| one that differs among the people and might be the real cause of an observed effect |
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| a test used to measure every subject, used to make groups equivalent |
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| the repeated measures and matched pairs designs because in both we get scores in an analysis |
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| each participant is tested in each condition (i.e. each level of the IV) |
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| repeat and experiment in order to see whether you get the same effect leading to more validity |
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| standardized instructions/procedures |
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| each participant is needed to perform under exactly the same conditions so that everything stays the same, except the IV, the instructions given are exactly the same to each participant so that no one gets more or less information |
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| each level of the IV is tested on different people, scores are unrelated |
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| when only looking at the differences within participants |
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| generalizable to other places |
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| describes studies where, although the laboratory situation was quite unlike real life, the context of the experiment was so gripping and engaging that any artificiality was compensated for by the fact that the participants took the situation so seriously |
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| the extent in which the results, if it is a genuine effect, can be generalized to another place (ecological validity), people (population validity), and times (historical validity) |
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| go out of their research department and conduct their research in the outside world, allows to study people in their own natural habitat, they may or may not be aware they are participating in research |
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| generalizable to other times |
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| refers to confounding variables, statistical errors, bias in gathering data etc., that could lead to the impression that an effect exists when it doesn't, or the conclusion that our IV made a difference when there was another variable that was responsible |
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| place where people are tested, domain of the researcher |
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| the extent to which a laboratory study mimics events and variables found in real life |
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| generalizable to other people |
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| factors in an experiment that if not well controlled will lead to incorrect conclusions |
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| clues about what the experiment is really studying that help the participants guess what is under investigation and what is expected, they may reveal the hypothesis of the experiment |
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| when both the participants and the experimenters are kept ignorant of the expected outcomes |
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| psychology students become increasingly aware of the psychological findings and of the tricks used by a researcher to get genuine results by disguising their research intent |
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| a fear of doing badly or appearing not socially desirable, this anxiety affects their performance in the experimental trials |
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| someone who runs the experiment on behalf of the researcher |
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| refers to the possibility that experimenters who know the desired outcomes of a study may subtly alter the behavior of the participants |
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| a statistical analysis of the extent to which experimenters' results agree |
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| the one who has the overall responsibility for a research project |
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| any unwanted effect of the investigator on the researcher outcome |
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| various ways that a participant might behave when they expect a certain result to occur |
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| a substance that has no effect on behavior at all |
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| pleasing the experimenter |
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| produce results they think the experiment requires |
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| participants react to being studied |
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| when the participant is not informed about the conditions in which they are participating |
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| a participant wishes to appear as normal as the next person |
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| open and closed questions/items |
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open: an item that produces an unpredicted amount of free human speech
closed: familiar items that ask us to give a specific answer |
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| participant responds by using a level of agreement and disagreement |
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| psychological measurements comprised of statments |
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| psychological measurements comprised of statements |
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| someone who responds to a questionnaire |
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| original psychological scale |
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| the construction of scales or 'tests' as measures of attitude, personality, intelligence and so on |
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| a bias where people find it easier to say yes than no, and if you are always answering in the same way you are more likely to respond that way in the next set of tests or questions |
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| measures the meaning of an object to a participant by having the participant give the denotative meaning and the connotative meaning |
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| a line separating the two extremes and the participant must mark which point they believe |
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| cannot face validity because they are based on theory of projection, the idea being that they're faced with ambiguous stimuli |
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consistency
*internal and external |
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is the scale consistent within itself? do the items relate to each other?
*split-half and item analysis |
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| Split half (Internal Reliability) |
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| group is split into 2 and the scores of the groups are compared, if the tests are reliable the scores should be correlate |
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| Item analysis (Internal Reliability) |
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| a comparison between an individual's scores and the scores on the scale overall |
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| (stability) do scores vary from one test occasion to another |
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| the extent that scale measures what it is suppose to measure |
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| superficial appearance of the tests |
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| test includes a representative sample of the domain being tested |
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extent to which a test can produce outcomes
*concurrent and predictive |
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| concurrent (criterion validity) |
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| if it produces outcomes that are the same or similar to other related tests |
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| predictive (criterion validity) |
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| being able to make predictions based on test scores |
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| follow logically from a developed theory, predict relationships between each other variables, explain a network of findings already published and be unique that no other variable will suffice to describe this phenomenon |
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| procedure to question an entire population |
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| semi-structured interview where everyone is asked a specific set of questions but in several different ways |
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| those that assess the script for category |
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| semi-structured interview |
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| attempt is made to retain the advantages of an informal method (the interview feels like a chat) |
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| asking a relatively large group of people a set of questions |
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an abstract concept that refers to the ways in which questions are asked and the logic and methods used to gain answers
1. reliance on an empirical approach
2. a skeptical attitude scientists adopt toward explanations of behavior and mental processes |
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| emphasizes direct observation and experimentation as a way of answering questions, psychologists focus on behaviors and experiences that could be observed directly |
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| an attempt to understand behavior of individuals in a different culture through the framework or views of our own culture |
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| a tentative explanation for a phenomenon, usually stated in the form of a prediction for some outcome, along with an explanation for the prediction |
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| searching for an answer using various research methodologies and measures of behavior |
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