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Research & Evaluation
Study tool for the NCE
132
Psychology
Graduate
02/25/2011

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
What is the most valuable type of research?
Definition
The experiment, which is used to discover cause-and-effect relationships
Term
Define experimental research.
Definition
The process of gathering data in order to make evaluative comparisons regarding different situations.
Term

True/False.

An experiment must have the conditions of treatment controlled via the experimenter and random assignments (also called randomization) into groups.

Definition
True
Term
Describe quasi-experiments.
Definition

The researcher uses preexisting groups

The IV cannot be altered

One cannot state with any degree of statistical confidence that the IV caused the DV

Term
Describe "ex post facto study".
Definition

Literally means "after the fact"

A correlational study or research in which intact, preexisting groups.

The IV was administered before the research began.

Term
Name some threats to internal validity.
Definition

Maturation of subjects (psychological & physical changes including fatigue)

Mortality (subjects withdrawing)

Instruments used to measure the behavior or trait

Statistical regression (high or low scores moving toward the mean if the measure is used again)

Term
Define internal validity.
Definition
Refers to wether the DVs were truly influenced by the experimental IVs or whether other factors had an impact.
Term
Define external validity.
Definition
Refers to whether the experimental research results can be generalized to larger populations (i.e. other people, settings, or conditions)
Term
Describe "factor analysis."
Definition

Statistical procedures that use the important or underlying "factors" in an attempt to summarize a lot of variables.

 

Concerned with data reduction.

Term
Describe chi-square.
Definition
A nonparametric statistical measure that tests whether a distribution differs significantly from an expected theoretical distribution.
Term
Define parsimony in regards to experiments.
Definition

The easiest and less complex explanation is said to be the best

 

An economical description.

Term
Describe Occam's Razor.
Definition

Another term for the concept of parsimony.

 

Principle of economy (Lloyd Morgan's 1894 Canon)

 

Interpret the results in the simplest manner.

Term
Define bubbles in regards to research.
Definition
Flaws in research
Term
What journal publishes the most counseling research in the field?
Definition
The APA's Journal of Counseling Psychology
Term
Define confounding.
Definition
Occurs when an undesirable variably which is not controlled for by the researcher is introduced in the experiment (contaminating variable).
Term
Define contaminating variable.
Definition
An undesirable variable that enters the experiment without the researcher knowing
Term
Why is basic research conducted?
Definition
to advance our understanding of theory
Term
Why is applied research conducted?
Definition
to advance our knowledge of how theories, skills, & techniques can be used in terms of practical application.
Term
What are 2 other names for applied research?
Definition

Action research

Experience-near research

Term
Define variable.
Definition

A behavior or circumstance that can exist on at least two levels or conditions.

 

A factor that "varies" or is capable of change.

Term
Define independent variable.
Definition
The variable that the researcher manipulates, controls, alters, or wishes to experiment with.
Term
Define dependent variable.
Definition
Expresses the outcome of the data.
Term
What is another name for a true experiment?
Definition
Causal comparative design
Term
Name the 6 ethics which guide counselors in conducting any experiment.
Definition

1. Subjects are informed of risks

2. Negative after effects are removed

3. You will allow subjects to withdraw at any time

4. Confidentiality of all subjects will be protected

5. Research report results will be presented in an accurate format that is not misleading

6. You will use only techniques that you are trained in

Term
Contrast control group and experimental group.
Definition

Control group does not receive the IV.

 

Experimental group does receive the IV.

Term
Most experiments need at least ___ to conduct a true experiment.
Definition
30
Term
Correlational research requires ___ subjects per variable.
Definition
30
Term
A survey should include at least ____ people.
Definition
100
Term

True/False.

If you cannot randomly assign the subjects to two groups, you must consider your research quasi-experimental.

Definition
True
Term
Describe organismic variables.
Definition

A variable that the researcher cannot control yet exists.

 

Height weight, gender

Term
What is R.A. Fisher known for?
Definition
Pioneering hypothesis testing
Term
Define hypothesis.
Definition

A hunch or educated guess which can be tested using the experimental model.

 

Can be tested regarding the relationship of the IV and the DV.

Term
Define null hypothesis.
Definition

Asserts that the samples will not change even after the experimental variable is applied.

 

The control group and the experimental group will not differ at the end of the experiment.

 

The IV does not affect the DV.

Term
Define meta-analysis.
Definition
A study that analyzes the findings of numerous studies.
Term
Define alternative hypothesis.
Definition

Also called affirmative hypothesis.

 

Asserts that the IV has caused a change.

 

The IV has affected the DV.

Term
Define and name the descriptive statistics.
Definition

Describes data.

 

Mean, median, mode.

Term
Define inferential statistics.
Definition
Infer something about the population
Term
Define percentile rank.
Definition
A descriptive statistic that tells the counselor what percentage of the cases fell below a certain level.
Term
Graphically speaking, how will a distribution of percentile scores look?
Definition
Rectangular and flat
Term
What is the use of tests of significance?
Definition
To determine whether a difference in the groups' scores is "significant" or just due to change factors.
Term
Describe t-test.
Definition

Also called "two-groups"/"two-randomized groups"

 

Two groups are independent of each other in the sense that the change (or lack of it) in one group did not influences the other group.

 

Described as a "independent group comparison design"

Term
Define "between-subjects design."
Definition
When a research study uses different subjects for each condition
Term
Define "within-subjects design."
Definition
The same subjects are used in both conditions.
Term
Define parameter.
Definition

A value obtained from a population

 

Summarizes a characteristic of a population

Term
What is the traditional level of significance (probability) in social science research?
Definition
.05 or lower (.01 or .001).
Term
What does a level of significance of .05 actually mean?
Definition
Differences would occur via chance only 5 times out of 100
Term
What is ethnographic research?
Definition
Involves research that is collected via interviews, observations, and inspection of documents.
Term
What is another name for level of significance?
Definition
Confidence level
Term
Describe and give another name for Type I errors.
Definition

Occurs when a research rejects the null hypothesis when it is actually true.

 

Alpha Error

Term
Describe and give another name for Type II error.
Definition

Occurs when you accept the null hypothesis when it is actually false.

 

Beta Error

Term
The probability of committing a Type I error is equal to what?
Definition
Level of significance
Term
1 minus beta is called:
Definition
"the power of the statistical test": the test's ability to reject correctly a false null hypothesis.
Term
Describe the process of the t-test.
Definition

1. Researcher sets the level of significance and then runs the experiment.

2. The t test is computed and this yields a t value.

3. The researcher looks at a t table to determine if the t value obtained is statistically lower than the t value in the table (critical t)

4.  If it is statistically lower, accept the null hypothesis.

Term
Describe ANOVA.
Definition

Analysis of Variance

Used when there are more than two groups

Results yield an F-statistic 

Researcher consults an F table for a critical value F

If obtained F exceeds critical F, the null hypothesis is rejected

Term
Describe ANCOVA.
Definition

Tests 2/+ groups while controlling for extraneous variables (called covariates)

 

Term
When is the Kruskal-Wallis used?
Definition
Used in place of an ANOVA when the data are non-parametric
Term
When is the Wilcoxon signed rank test used?
Definition
Used in place of the t-test when the data are non-parametric and you wish to test whether two correlated means differ significantly
Term
When is the Mann-Whitney U-Test used?
Definition
Used to determine whether two uncorrelated means differ significantly when data are non-parametric
Term
When is the Spearman correlation used?
Definition
Used in place of the Pearson r when parametric assumptions cannot be utilized
Term
What is the Chi-Square non-parametric test used to find?
Definition
Examines whether obtained frequencies differ significantly from expected frequencies
Term

What does MANOVA stand for and when is it used?

 

Definition

Multivariate Analysis of Variance

 

Used when a study has more than one DV

Term
Distinguish between a positive and a negative correlation.
Definition

Positive: both variables change in the same direction

Negative: the variables are inversely associated; one goes up and the other goes down

Term
Describe biserial correlation.
Definition
Indicates that one variable is continuous (measured using an interval scale) while the other is dichotomous.
Term
What is covariation?
Definition

Another word for correlation

When two variables vary together, they covary positively

When one variable increases as the other decreases, they covary negatively

Term
Because correlational research is quasi-experimental, it does not yield:
Definition
cause-effect data
Term
What does bivariate mean?
Definition
Correlational data describes the nature of two variables
Term
What does multivariate mean?
Definition
The nature of more than two variables is being scrutinized
Term

Behaviorists often utilize N=1, which is called intensive experimental design. 

What is the first step in this approach?

What does A,B,C stand for in this approach?

Definition

Take a baseline measure

 

A: baselines

B: intervention implementation

C: Second or alternative form of intervention

Term
Describe a single-blind study.
Definition
The subject does not know whether he or she is a member of the control group or the experimental group, however, the researcher knows.
Term
What are demand characteristics?
Definition

Cues or features of a study which suggest a desired outcome. 

 

Can enable the subject to manipulate and confound an experiment by purposely trying to confirm or disprove the experimental hypothesis

Term
Describe a double-blind study.
Definition

Neither the participant nor the researcher know which subjects are in the control group and which are in the experimental group.

People who rate/judge the subjects often don't even know the research hypothesis

Term
What are experimenter effects?
Definition

Occurs when the experimenter unconsciously communicates his or her intent or expectations to the subjects

Can flaw an experiment

Term
Describe AB or ABA time-series designs.
Definition

The simplest type of single-subject research- popularized in the 1960s & 1970s.

Rely on continuous measurement: A) Baseline secured; B) intervention implemented; A) Outcome is examined via new baseline.

Also called "withdrawal designs."

Term
Define correlation coefficient.
Definition
A descriptive statistic which indicates the degree of "linear relationship" between two variables
Term
What does the phrase "linear relationship" indicate?
Definition
When a perfect relationship exists (correlation of 1.0 or -1.0), the graphical representation will be a straight line
Term
Describe the concept of the bell-shaped curve.
Definition
The shape is symmetrical, meaning that data is normally distributed.  If enough data are collected, the graphical representation will resemble a bell-shaped curve
Term
What is the 68-95-99.7 rule?
Definition

In a normal distribution:

68% of the scores fall within plus/minus 1 SD of the mean;

95% within plus/minus 2 SD of the mean;

99.7% within plus/minus 3 SD of the mean

Term
Describe the mode.
Definition

The highest or maximum point of concentration.

The highest point on the curve.

Term
Describe the range.
Definition

The distance between the highest and lowest scores.

The larger the range, the greater the dispersion or spread of the scores from the mean.

Term
What is the most useful measure of central tendency?
Definition
Mean
Term
In skewed distributions, what measure of central tendency should be used?
Definition
Median
Term
When would one use a factorial design?
Definition
When there are two or more independent variables.
Term
Describe skewed distribution.
Definition

The left & right side of the curve are not mirror images.

The mean, median, & mode all fall at different points.

Term
Describe the Solomon four-group design.
Definition
Two control groups are used. Only one control group & one experimental group are pretested.  All groups are post-tested.  Lets the researcher know if pretesting had any influence on the outcome of the experiment.
Term
Describe what the tails on a bell-curve graphical representation mean.
Definition

The tail indicates whether the distribution is positively or negatively skewed.

 

Negative: long tail to the left

 

Positive: long tail to the right

Term
What is the benefit of a standard score (percentiles, t-scores, z-scores, stanines, standard deviations) over raw scores?
Definition
Standard scores allow you to analyze the data in relation to the properties of the normal bell curve
Term
What is a Gaussian curve?
Definition
A mesokurtic curve with the peak in the middle.
Term
What does the horizontal axis plot?
Definition
The IV- the factor manipulated by the experimenter
Term
What does the vertical axis plot?
Definition
The DV- experimental data
Term
Give the other names for the x-axis and the y-axis.
Definition

X-axis: abscissa

Y-axis: ordinate

Term
Define reliability in regards to social sciences.
Definition
Indicates consistency in measurement
Term
What is a scattergram?
Definition

A pictorial diagram or graph of the two variables being correlated

 

Also known as a scatterplot

Term
What is the John Henry Effect?
Definition

A threat to the internal validity of an experiment that occurs when subjects strive to prove that an experimental treatment that could threaten their livelihood really isn't all that effective

 

Also called compensatory rivalry of a comparison group

Term
What is the "Resentful Demoralization of the Comparison Group"?
Definition
A threat to internal validity in which the comparison group lowers their performance or behaves in an inept manner because they have been denied the experimental treatment, which causes the experimental group to look better than they should
Term
What are z-scores?
Definition

They are the same as standard deviations

 

Often called standard scores

Term
Define kurtosis.
Definition
The peakedness of a frequency distribution
Term
Describe how a platykurtic distribution looks
Definition
Flatter and more spread out than the normal curve
Term
Descrive how a leptokurtic distribution looks
Definition
The curve is very tall, thin, and peaked
Term
Describe nominal scales.
Definition

The most elementary scale- does not provide quantitative information

 

Classifies, names, labels, or identifies by groups

 

Has no true zero point and does not indicate order

Term
Describe ordinal scales.
Definition
Provides relative placement or standing but does not delineate absolute differences
Term
What type of measurement to IQ tests provide?
Definition
Interval measurement
Term
Describe ratio scales.
Definition

The highest level of measurement

 

Time, height, weight, temperature on the Kelvin scale, volume, and distance

Term
Describe naturalistic observation.
Definition

The researcher does not intervene

 

The setting is "natural" rather than in a laboratory environment

 

The oldest method of research

Term
Explain a 2x3 factorial notation.
Definition

The first variable has two levels (e.g. male or female)

 

The second variable has three levels

Term
Describe the process of using a survey.
Definition

The researcher attempts to gather large amounts of data

 

Often uses a questionnaire or an interview

 

Used to generate generalizations regarding the behavior of the population as a whole

Term
Name some of the problems associated with surveys.
Definition

Poor construction of the instrument

A low return rate

Subjects are often not picked at random (not representative of the population)

Term
Describe the Hawthorne Effect.
Definition
If subjects know they are part of an experiment (or if they are given more attention because of the experiment) their performance sometimes improves
Term
Define the "reactive effect" of observation/experimentation.
Definition

Occurs when observations are made and the subjects' behavior is influenced by the very presence of the researcher

 

The subject is reacting to the presence of the investigator

Term
Describe the Rosenthal effect (also called the experimenter expectancy effect).
Definition
Asserts that the experimenter's beliefs about the individual may cause the individual to be treated in a special way so that the individual begins to fulfill the experimenter's expectations
Term
Describe the Halo effect.
Definition
Occurs when a trait which is not being evaluated (e.g. attractiveness or how well he or she is liked) influences a researcher's rating on another trait (counseling skill)
Term
Define trend analysis.
Definition
A statistical procedure performed at different times to see if a trend is evident
Term
Describe a cohort study.
Definition
Examines people who were born at the same time, shared an event, etc. in regard to a given characteristic
Term
Describe statistical regression.
Definition
A threat to internal validity which predicts that very high and very low scores will move toward the mean if a test is administered again
Term
Define quartile.
Definition

Refers to the points that divide a distribution into fourths.

 

25th percentile is in the first quartile, etc.

 

The score distance between the 25th percentile and the 75th percentile is called the interquartile range

Term
Define standardization.
Definition
The testing format, the test materials, and the scoring process are consistent.
Term
Distinguish between a cross-sectional study and a longitudinal study.
Definition

Cross-sectional: clients are assessed at one point in time (also called the synchronic method)

Longitudinal: the same people are studied over a period of time (also called the diachronic method)

Term
Describe ipsative interpretation.
Definition

Implies a within-person analysis rather than a normative analysis between individuals

 

Looking at an individual's own patterns revealed via measurement

Term
Describe demand characteristics.
Definition

Any bit of knowledge (correct or incorrect) that the subject in an experiment is aware of that can influence his or her behavior

 

Can confound an experiment

 

Deception has been used to reduce this

Term
Define the Pygmalion Effect.
Definition
The experimenter falls in love with his or her own hypothesis and the experiment becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Term
What is counterbalancing used for?
Definition

Used to control for the fact that the order of an experiment could impact its outcome

 

The solution is to change the order of the experimental factors

Term
Define ahistoric therapy.
Definition
Any psychotherapeutic model that focuses on the here-and-now rather than the past
Term
Define multiple treatment interference.
Definition
If a subject receives more than one treatment, it is often tough to discern which modality truly caused the improvement
Term
Describe random sampling.
Definition

Each subject has the same probability of being selected

 

The selection of one subject does not affect the selection of another subject

 

Eliminates the researcher's tendency to pick a biased sample of subjects

Term
Define horizontal sampling.
Definition
The researcher selects subjects from a single socioeconomic group
Term
Define replication.
Definition
Another researcher can repeat the experiment exactly as it was performed before
Term
Describe a matched design.
Definition
Subjects are literally "matched" in regard to any variable that could be "correlated" with the DV, which is really the postexperimental performance
Term
Define the Mann-Whitney U-test.
Definition
Used to determine whether two uncorrelated/unmatched means differ significantly
Term
Define the Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
Definition
Examines whether two correlated means differ significantly from each other
Term
What is another name for unmatched/uncorrelated groups?
Definition
Independent groups
Term
Distinguish between inductive and deductive logic or reasoning.
Definition

Inductive: the research goes from the specific to a generalization.

 

Deductive: reduces the general to specific

Term
Define attrition.
Definition
Subjects dropping out of the study
Term
Define the standard error of measurement (SEM).
Definition
Tells the counselor what would most likely occur if the same individual took the same test again.
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