Term
|
Definition
the plan or blueprint for a study and includes the who, what, where, when, why, and how of an investigation. The research design should flow from the
problem formulation and critical issues that were identified for observation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the experimental model contains many
variations and should not be restricted to this stereotypical view. Most studies of an empirical nature in criminology and criminal justice can be viewed as variations of the experimental model |
|
|
Term
| RESEARCH DESIGN IN A NUTSHELL |
|
Definition
treatment (independent variable), e.g., Foot Patrol Y outcome (dependent variable), e.g.,
Crime Rate Z any rival causal factor (other variables besides X that could really be causing a change in Y), e.g., history, selection bias, testing, etc.
O observation (some measurement or assessment of dependent variable)
E equivalence (randomization or matching)
1, 2 time |
|
|
Term
| Resolution of Causality Problem |
|
Definition
The first step involves the demonstration of a relationship or
covariance between variables. That is, one variable is related, increases or decreases in value, in
some predictable manner along with increases or decreases in the value of another variable.
The second step consists of specifying or indicating the time sequence of the relationship. Which variable is the independent or predictor variable X, and which is the outcome or dependent
variable Y?
The third step involves the exclusion of rival causal factors, or the elimination of other variables that could conceivably explain away the original relationships the researcher had claimed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
is a false relationship;
that is, one that is not caused by the believed variables but can be explained by other variables. |
|
|
Term
Three essential steps in resolving the
causality problem |
|
Definition
1. Demonstrate that a relationship exists between the key variables.
2. Specify the time order of the relationship.
3. Eliminate rival causal factors. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any variables other than X (the treatment) that may be responsible for the relationship. |
|
|
Term
(RIVAL CAUSAL FACTORS)
internal factors |
|
Definition
other variables within the study itself that may tend to invalidate one’s
findings and conclusions |
|
|
Term
(RIVAL CAUSAL FACTORS)
external factors |
|
Definition
| elements outside of one’s immediate study that may imperil the researcher’s attempts to draw generalizations from the study and infer one’s findings to be true of larger populations. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| refers to accuracy or correctness in research. |
|
|
Term
| Internal & External validity |
|
Definition
Internal factors question the internal
validity of research, whereas external factors impugn the external validity of findings |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| refers to other specific events that may have taken place during the course of the study and may have produced the results. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
refers to biological or psychological changes in the respondents during the course of study that are not due to the experimental variable. “Time heals all wounds,” refers to the phenomenon in medical research wherein a given number
of patients can be expected to reveal improved conditions with or without treatment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(pretest bias) refers to the bias and foreknowledge introduced to respondents as a result of having been pretested. On a second testing, the respondents are no longer naive regarding the
subject matter and can make use of sensitivities, information, and attitudes garnered from the first testing. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
involves changes in the measuring instrument from the beginning or first period of evaluation to the second, later, or final evaluation. The measuring instrument may refer to
observers, questionnaires, interviews, analyses of existing records, or any standard method of data gathering. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
is the tendency of groups that have been selected for study on the basis of
extreme high or low scores to regress or move toward the mean or average on second testing. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| occurs when the researcher chooses nonequivalent groups for comparison. Studies that compare the attitudes or behavior of volunteers and nonvolunteers are often subject to selection bias. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
In studying the same group over a period of time, an expected loss of subjects can be anticipated.
This loss is referred to as experimental mortality. One method of assessing possible bias as a result of the loss of respondents is to compare
known characteristics of respondents with those of nonrespondents. |
|
|
Term
| EXTERNAL FACTORS: VARIABLES RELATED TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY |
|
Definition
Testing effects
Selection bias
Reactivity or awareness of being studied
Multiple-treatment interference |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
point to the tendency of pretests to destroy the naiveté of respondents with respect
to the variable(s) being studied and decrease or more predictably increase the subjects’ awareness or sensitivity, thus complicating the ability to generalize their responses to a larger population thathas not been pretested. |
|
|
Term
| Reactivity or Awareness of Being Studied |
|
Definition
tends to produce atypical or unnatural behavior
on the part of subjects. Most people have had experience with previously announced inspections,visiting or guest teachers and the like, to realize that behavior observed during that day tends to be at times quite different from what normally occurs. |
|
|
Term
| Multiple-Treatment Interferences |
|
Definition
| occurs when more than one treatment or predictor variable is used on the same subjects. |
|
|
Term
RELATED RIVAL CAUSAL FACTORS
Hawthorne Effect |
|
Definition
serves as an example of
reactivity resulting in atypical behavior or attitudes on the part of research subjects as a result of their awareness of being studied. |
|
|
Term
RELATED RIVAL CAUSAL FACTORS
Halo Effect |
|
Definition
was coined by Thorndike, who noticed that when supervisors rated subordinates, the ratings were all “higher than reality.” It refers to observer bias in which observers,
perhaps unconsciously, follow an initial tendency to rate certain objects or persons in a particular
manner; this initial orientation carries over into all subsequent ratings. |
|
|
Term
RELATED RIVAL CAUSAL FACTORS
self-fulfilling prophecy |
|
Definition
A researcher’s own hidden biases and expectations
may influence his or her perception of events so as to bring about that which had been assumed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the tendency of subjects to react to a known
stimulus in the predicted manner. Commonly used in medical research, the “sugar pill” or a placebo (fake treatment) with no known effects is administered to the study group to hide the real treatment group and also to control for the placebo effect. |
|
|
Term
| Three general types of experimental designs |
|
Definition
1. Experimental designs (sometimes called “true experimental designs”) are characterized by random assignment to treatment and control groups and include the classical, posttest-only
control group, and Solomon four-group designs.
2. Quasi-experimental designs do not use random assignment of groups and instead employ matching or other means of obtaining equivalence of groups. Quasi-experimental designs include time-series and counterbalanced designs.
3. Preexperimental designs lack any equivalence of groups and include one- and two-group ex post facto and one-group before–after designs. |
|
|
Term
THE CLASSIC EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
contains three key elements: |
|
Definition
Equivalence- refers to the attempt on the part of the researcher to select and assign subjects
to comparison groups in such a manner that they can be assumed to be alike in all major respects.
Pretests and posttests- observation prior
to exposure to treatment and a posttest or measurement after exposure to treatment.
Experimental and control groups-experimental group; the group that is not exposed to the stimulus or predictor variable is the control group. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The term broadly refers to a variety of strategies that attempt to get the police away from rapid response to service and closer to the community on a day-to-day basis. Order-maintenance, community crime prevention, problem solving, neighborhood safety, foot patrol, and a host of police–community
relations strategies are all included under community policing |
|
|
Term
| Stratified Random Samples. |
|
Definition
rely on knowledge of the distribution
or proportion of population characteristics to choose a sample that assures representativeness of these characteristics. Such characteristics are generally demographic in
nature, such as age, sex, race, social class, or of pertinence to the study, such as area of residence, nature and type of criminal record, region, or some quality of importance in the analysis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
samples in which each
element of the population (or universe) has an equal probability of being selected. Sometimes
the mnemonic device EPSEM samples are used to denote the key features of an SRS |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
every nth item in a list is included in the sample. (In the language of statistics, n represents every second, third, fourth, or nth case.) Purists insist that such a sample is a nonprobability sample, because various patterns, for example ethnic surnames,
may exist in a list that would destroy its representativeness. If offenders or arrestees were listed in order of offense seriousness, the final sample may be biased. |
|
|
Term
| Beware of statistics of convenience |
|
Definition
types of analyses that may have been chosen by the
researcher on the basis that they would most likely shed the best possible light on the data. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| generally used in surveys that involve field interviews and is most useful in studies that involve widely dispersed subjects. The population to be surveyed is divided into clusters, for example, census tracts, blocks, and sections, and then a probability sample of clusters is selected for study. Such a sampling procedure is less time consuming and costly, particularly in terms of field staff. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Victim surveys involve questioning a representative sample of the population to obtain
an estimate of victimization, a portion of which is not reported to the police. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(the analysis of analysis)Statistical analysis of data from many different
studies dealing with the same research question in order to determine general findings. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
is generally used in surveys that involve field interviews and is most useful in studies that involve widely dispersed subjects. The population to be surveyed is divided into clusters, for example, census tracts, blocks, and sections, and then a probability
sample of clusters is selected for study. Such a sampling procedure is less time consuming and costly, particularly in terms of field staff. |
|
|
Term
| Consumer Price Index (CPI) |
|
Definition
| (CPI) has been under attack despite the fact that it is generally considered one of the best price measures in the world. This index represents the composite average increase in prices consumers pay for such items as shelter, food, utilities, clothing, furnishings, upkeep, transportation, health, and entertainment. |
|
|
