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| studied black-body radiation; proposed that energy is quantized |
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| studied the photoelectric effect (short wavelengths of light can excite electrons); introduced the concept of starting the scientific process by analyzing symmetry |
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| interpreted the atomic spectrum of hydrogen in the orbit model |
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| postulated that particles have wave properties |
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| theorized that particles have wave functions; writes the equation for the wave function |
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| relates Schrödinger's wave function to probability |
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| introduces the uncertainty principle; impossible to know the exact position and momentum of any particle |
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| confirmed quantum mechanics and special relativity could coexist; predicted the existence of antiparticles |
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| proposed that virtual particles mediate interactions |
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| "sum-over-path" idea; the path of a particle is the sum over the possibilities |
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| the small attractive force between two closed, parallel, perfectly reflective plates due to virtual particles |
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| the shift in the energy of hydrogen due to the presence of virtual particles |
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| the branch of physics that explains particle behavior in terms of probability |
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| the path a particle will take is determined by summing the probabilities of all possible paths |
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| constituents of matter; obey the Pauli exclusion principle; half-integer spins |
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| force carriers; do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle; integer spins |
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| fermions that can be observed alone; do not participate in strong interactions and are not seen in the nucleus |
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| fermions that cannot be observed alone; comprise the nucleus particles like protons and neutrons |
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| groups of quarks that can be observed |
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| the three charges that quarks can possess; denoted by red, green, and blue |
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| groups of three quarks; must contain one quark of each color charge |
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| groups of two quarks; must consist of one quark and its respective antiquark |
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| first generation fermions |
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| the up and down quarks and the electron and electron neutrino; the universe is comprised of these fermions |
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| second generation fermions |
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| the strange and charm quarks and the muon and electron neutrino |
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| third generation fermions |
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| the top and bottom quarks and the tau and tau neutrino |
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| invariance with respect to transformation |
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| the laws of physics remain valid when a transformation varies from place to place and from moment to moment |
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| the laws of physics remain valid when the same transformation is applied everywhere at once |
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| categorized the quantum particles |
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| the four fundamental forces |
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| the strong nuclear force, the weak nuclear force, electromagnetism, and gravitation |
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| the force binding protons and neutrons into the nucleus of an atom; caused by gluons |
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| the force responsible for radioactive decay and fusion; affects all fermions; caused by the bosons W+, W-, and Z |
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| the particle responsible for the gravitational force; hypothesized to exist but not actually detected in an experiment |
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| the field responsible for giving particles mass |
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