• surveys
• diaries
• sleep lab

• first night effects
• red-tinted goggles are worn while awake
• lucid dreaming
• stimulate while asleep during REM sleep

• first REM period (first dream)-bathed in red
• second REM period (second dream)-bathed in pink
• third REM period (third dream)-back to normal

• splash water in face and see if it effects dream (42% of the time it does effect it)
• flash light in face (23%)
• make a slight noise (9%)

• 80-85% of the time dreams are reported upon waking from REM
• 15% of time non-REM
• REM dreams are often more vivid than non-REM dreams

• Dreams have meaning
• Dreams as a way to solve problems
• Biological Theories
• Activation-Synthesis Theory

Dreams have Meaning

Manifest Content

Latent Content

Sigmund Freud:  Dreams have meanings that can be interpreted

• Manifest Content: remembered story line of dream
• Latent Content: meaning of dream

OTTFFSSE?=N (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9)

• Man had a dream of the number 9 and then was asked to answer this problem and he knew from his dream

What is associated in classical conditioning?

• Training= Tone-Meat (US)-Salivate (UR)
• Testing=Tone-Salivate

a neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

-neutral stimulus: does not produce the conditioned response before training

learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

• not the same response as the unconditioned response. often slower and weaker
• CS is a signal that the US is about to occur. CS does not stand in for US. CS prepares body for US

• US: meat powder
• UR: salivation
• neutral stimulus: tone

AFTER CONDITIONING

• CS: tone
• CR: salivation

• make a hierarchy of fears
• associate least feared item with relaxation response and work your way through the hierarchy until relaxed to the phobic item

• can be several hours between CS (taste) and UR (illness)
• one trial condition
• lasts a long time (resistant to extinction)
• doesn't occur with visual, auditory, or tactile CS (biological predisposition to associate taste with illness and visual, auditory, and tactile sensations with assault to the body)

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner 1904-1990)

behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely to occur in the future.  behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely to occur in the future.

(edward thorndike 1874-1949)

administer a aversive stimulus (spanking a child, parking ticket)

• general suppression of behavior may occur
• does not guide the organism to the desired behavior
• may increase aggressiveness
• undesirable behavior may reappear in safe setting (smoking when parents aren't home)

1. Fixed Ratio
2. Variable Ratio
3. Fixed Interval
4. Variable Interval

behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses

-results in high rate of responding but will extinguish relatively quickly

behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses

-results in high rate of responding that is resistant to extinction (EX. slot machines)

the first response after a fixed period of time id reinforced

-responses decrease between reinforcements and responses increase greatly near reinforcement time (EX. mail delivery)

first response after a varying time interval is reinforced

-results in low rate of responding but persists for a very long time (highly resistant to extinction)

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

-includes memory of incidental detail

• ask where they were during an incident (Pearl Harbor)
• ask again 2 years later and they say somewhere different

change story slightly, fill in gaps, omit details

-modifies memory so it has meaningful structure

-POINT: strongest memory is not just a simple recording of events

-can be altered

1. Encoding
2. Storage 
3. Retrieval

brief storage of information

• Iconic (visual)-lasts about 1 second
• Echoic (auditory)-last about 4 seconds (most information lost, some goes into short term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly

• deals with information person is dealing with at the moment
• holds a small amount of info (5-9 pieces)
• lasts about 20 seconds
• can be made to last longer=rehearsal 

permanent memory store

• large capacity
• lasts a long time
• includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

repeating items

-some info goes into final stage

pronounceable 

-usually: consonant, vowel, consonant

EXAMPLE: DAK, GIR, JOP, FID, DEF, NOL, KIF

he would memorize these, wait 24 hours, and then see if he remembered them

1. Meaning
2. Visual Encoding (visual imagery)
3. Organizing Information

1970's: What allows for better memory of words?

-visual encoding: way a word looks

-acoustic encoding: way a word sounds

-semantic encoding: meaning of the word

Later, unexpectedly tested for memory of the words. MEANING words were best remembered

concrete words are better remembered than abstract words. EX. cigarette=remembered

inherent=not remembered

Mnemonic Devices-memory aids

Chunk- a unit of information in short term memory

EX: CIAFBINRANFLMTV (15 letters)

CIA FBI NRA NFL MTV (5 chunks)

Put info into hierarchies- broad categories subdivided into finer and finer categories

• We remember stressful events, within limits
• Release of stress hormones result in more glucose in brain
• Amygdala becomes active
• SURVIVAL VALUE: remember something good, remember something bad

retention without conscious recollection

-skills (remember but hard to explain)

-disposition and preferences