reptilian

paleomammalian

neomammalian

basal ganglia/striatum

thalamus

hypothalamus

brainstem

• innate behavior
• instincts
• habits
• rituals
• routines
• implicit learning

Components of paleomammalian brain

• emotional knowledge
• temporal and spatial context
• implicit and explicit learning/memory

• consciousness
• reasoning
• executive learning
• sequencing
• abstraction
• working membory
• motivation
• affect regulation
• inhibit subcortical function
• implicit and explicit learning/memory

1. reflex arcs
2. brainstem
3. thalamus
   1. amygdala
   2. primary sensory cortices (thalamocortical tracts)
4. various circuits involving all regions

• spinal cord to thalamus (positive stimulus to thalamus)
• thalamus give positive stimuli to cortex
• cortex give positive stimuli to the basal ganglia
• basal ganglia give inhibitory signal to thalamus

Circuitry between pleasure/reward center and basal ganglia

• input
  • thalamus
  • cortex
• output
  • hypothalamus
  • orbito/frontal cortex
  • septum, nucleus accumbens
  • hippocampus

• required for explicit memory
• temporal and spatial context
• comparator
  • compare new info received with already stored info
• pre processed data

1. hippocampus connect to mammilary bodies of hypothalamus via fornix
2. mammillary bodies connect to anterior nucleus of thalamus
3. anterior nucleus to cingulate gyrus
4. hippocampus

It is required for learning/explicit memory. In short, you mess this up, you cant store new information.

1. primary sensory cortex to unimodal association cortex to multimodal association cortex
2. multimodal association cortex gives us stored representations
3. stored representations give us our own subjective realities
4. goes to prefrontal association cortex
5. to premotor cortex
6. to motor cortex
7. produce action or behavior

• the more routine or familiar a behavior or pattern is, the less conscious appraisal is required
• most daily activities our governed by unconscious routines or rituals
• most cognitive activity unconscious

• inhibit lower function
• regulation or affect
• working memory
• overrides default mode of stimulus bound routinized behavior characteristic of species without highly developed frontal cortices

• executive functions
  • working memory
  • motivation
  • planning
  • inhibit automatic behaviors
  • shift attention
  • sequencing
  • anticipating the future

• inhibit impulsive, automatic behaviors
• regulates emotional and physiological experience

• Function- motivation and emotional salience of behaviors
• if damaged, lead to abulia, bradykinesia, akinesia, mutism

• exposure to stimulus prompts initially stored emotion, or a stimulus that is similar results in reactivation of emotion and its associated symbolic, cognitive, visceral representation
• requires no concious mental activity

• parasymp. dominates over symp.
• decrease in cardiac contractility with onset
  • goes up in early morning
  • peaks in early afternoon
• GI has slower gastric emptying rates
  • elevated acid secretion between 9PM- midnite (clinical app.- heartburn at midnight)

• increase in carbon dioxide threshold because carbon dioxide chemoreceptor less sensitive in sleep
  • clinical app.- asthma, sleep apnea
• decrease ventilatory drive
• increase bronchoconstriction
• decrease accessory muscle tone
  • clinical app.- COPD patients have most problems during sleep

• allergic symptoms more pronounced in early AM (ex: hay fever, asthma)
• allergy skin testing has greater response in late evening

1. stage 1- transient sleep (shortest stage)
2. stage 2- light sleep (longest stage)
3. stage 3- deep sleep/slow wave sleep
4. stage 4- deep sleep/slow wave sleep

Difference in sleep between new born and adult sleep

Describe EEG patterns in awake, NREM, REM sleep

awake and REM rhythm fast

NREM orgoing to sleep, slow wave rhythms

• REM- most variables are irregular
• NREM- most variables are regular

If you were to wake up during your deep sleep, it would be much more difficult to wake up. However, if you wake up after a cycle of REM sleep, it is easier to wake up.

• monaminergic
  • increase wakefullness
  • decrease REM sleep
  • decrease NREM sleep
• cholinergic
  • increase wakefulness
  • increase REM sleep
  • decrease NREM sleep

orexin/hypocretin

ventrolateral preoptic area

• coordinate wakefulness with control of feeding
• food deprivation increases wakefulness and locomotor activity in mice

• release GABA, galanin
• increase NREM
• decrease REM
• decrease wakefulness

monoaminergic stop firing

cholinergic increases firing

go to medial medulla

go to motor neurons

homeostatic (process S)

circadian (process C)

One can override the other at times.

Role of circadian rhythm in sleep regulation

body temp fall

triacylglycerol level peak

subjective alertness falls

performance reation time starts rising

light dark cycle

physical activity

ambient temperature

melatonin

• cant fall asleep at night
• cant get up in morning
• tired all day except evening

• early mornin arousal
• daytime fatigue esp. late afternoon, early evening

malaise

insomnia/hypersomnia

fatigue

GI disturbances

central

obstructive

renal failure

stroke/neurological disorders

congestive heart failure

high altitude

obesity

large neck circumference

gender (more in men than women)

structural abnormality in upper airway

• loud snoring
• choking during sleep
• witnessed apneas by bed partners
• sitting up/fighting for breath
• abnormal motor activities (ex: thrashing about in bed)
• severe sleep disturbances/insomnia

• excessive daytime sleepiness
• forgetfulness
• personality changes
• decreased libido/impotence in men
• dryness of mouth on awakening
• morning headaches (in some patients)

treatment for sleep apnea

• CPAP (continuous positive airway pressure)
• ENT surgery
• dental/oral appliances

• excessive daytime sleepiness
• cataplexy
• hypnagogic hallucinations
• sleep paralysis
• fragmented nocturnal sleep

Define cataplexy

•  muscle weakness triggered by emotions
  • joking, laughter, anger
  • brief duration
  • bilateral
• may affect any voluntary muscle
• maintained consciousness

define hypnagogic hallucinations

state of cognitive and physiologic hyperarousal

unpleasant or undesirable behavioral or experimental phenomenon that occurs exclusively or predominantly during sleep

nightmares

night terrors

sleep walking

restore homeostasis

neuronal development (REM sleep)

memory consolidation (REM sleep)