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| humans, like all organisms, are collections of mechanisms for passing on their genes |
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| Rapid increase in brain size, relitive to body size, over time |
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tightly coiled structures of DNA and proteim
each chromosome is 1 DNA molecule |
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sugar and phosphate backbone
connected by bases
adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine |
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segment of DNA molecule
about 20,500 in humans |
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the set of genes we inherit (genetic make-up)
mutations |
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observable traits (how genes are expressed)
dominant versus recessive genes |
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| Extent to which variation among individuals in a trait is due to variation in the genes those individuals carry |
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| Sequencing of the human genome |
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| most of the human genome is identical for all |
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| different patterns of DNA that occur at particular locations and create a polymorphism |
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| reception of stimulation from the environment, creating a pattern of nerve impulses to the brain |
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| interpretation and organization of sensory stimulation patterns by the brain |
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| specialized cells that react to specific stimuli |
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| conversion of external energies into a nervous system signal |
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| bundles of neurons that carry information from the sense organs to the brain |
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| amount of stimulus energy necessary for detection in 50% of trials |
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| smallest change in intensity of a stimulus that we can detect half of the time |
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| Sensation is a product of |
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stimulus
background stimulation
detector |
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| all senses operate in much the same way, but each extracts different information and sends it to its own specialized processing region in the brain |
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| muscles that modify the amount of light admitted |
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| opening that admits light |
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| Bipolar cells in the retina |
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| axons leave the retina and form the optic nerve which travels to the rest of the brain |
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| area of retina containing no receptors |
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require bright lights
concentratged at fovea
color vision |
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basic shapes and forms
low levels of light |
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| three types of cones that respond to the colors green red and blue |
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| Bipolar cells excited by one color of light are inhibited by its compliment |
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| sensations that linger after the stimulus is removed |
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| communication between brain areas that are close to each other but process different sensations |
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| object recognition deficit |
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| above-chance visual performace of cortically blind individuals with damage to area of primary visual cortex |
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Term
| relationship between perception and sensation |
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Definition
| perception produces and interpretation of sensations, not a perfect repsresentation of the world |
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emphasizes characteristics of teh stimulus
sensory inputs are processed individually and object are built up from there |
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Definition
Emphasizes characteristics of the perceiver
the brain organizes sensory inputs according to preset structures or schemas |
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Ability to recognize the same object under different conditions, such as changes in illumination, distance, or location
color size and shape constancies |
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the brain fills in contours that "should" be there
Box between four pacmans |
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Term
| Gestalt theory of perception |
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Definition
| our brains are structured to organize sensory stimuli into meaningful patterns |
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Term
Gestalt Principles
Figure-ground Differentiation |
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Definition
Figure- Sharply delineated, distinct shape
Ground- No clear contours, indistinct |
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Term
Gestalt Principles
law of good Figure (Pragnanz)
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Definition
| we perceive the best figure possible rom the visual array we encounter |
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Term
Principloes of grouping
Proximity |
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Definition
| elements near each other are grouped together |
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Term
Principloes of grouping
Similarity
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Definition
| Elements with similar attributes are grouped together |
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Term
Principloes of grouping
Closure
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Definition
| Elements with missing contours are completed |
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Principloes of grouping
Continuation
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Definition
| Elements that appear to flow or follow in the same direction are grouped together |
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Learning Based inference
Theory of perception |
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Definition
| perception is primarily shaped by prior learning and experience (not inborn structures) |
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which line is bigger
two lines with arrows going opposite ways |
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| if you have two equal lines going into the distance the second looks bigger than the first |
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| Slanted room with one peep hole, person walks accross the back slanted part |
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| an information processing system that works constructively to encode, store and retrieve information |
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| false but convincing memory |
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Term
| memory is not a _______ system but an ________ system |
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Definition
| Recording ... Interpretive |
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Term
| Memory's three basic tasks |
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Definition
Encoding
storage
access and retrieval |
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Definition
| Getting Information into memroy |
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Definition
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Definition
| location, recovery, and reconstructon of information from memory |
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| How much information the system can hold |
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| how long the system can hold information |
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| mental work space where we sort and encode information before adding it to more permanent storage |
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| Organizing information into meaningful groupings to extend the span of STM |
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Definition
repeating info to extend the duration
Maintenence - repeating stimuli in the original form
Elaborative linking stimuli in a meaningful way |
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Term
Types of Long Term Memory (LTM)
Explicit Memory |
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Definition
| accessible to consious awareness, recalled intentionally |
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Term
Types of Long Term Memory (LTM)
Implicit memory
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Definition
not deliberately remembered
no conscious effort |
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Definition
| knowledge of general knowledge, meanings of words, concepts |
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| Knoledge of events in our lives (episodes) |
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| Motor skills and habits, "know how" |
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Definition
| exposure to a stimulus triggers associatons without awareness that this has occurred |
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Definition
claimed to have dramatically increased coca cola and popcorn consumption in a movie theater by flashing "drink coca cola" and "eat popcorn" subliminally
Subliminal messaging |
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Term
| How Do we Retrieve memories |
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Definition
| Whether memories are implicit or explicit, successful retrieval depends on how they were encoded and how they are cued |
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Definition
| reproducing previously presented information |
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| Identifying previously remembered information from an array of options |
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Term
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Definition
| if the retrieval cues are clsoe to how the info was encoded, the info will be recalled easier |
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Term
| Context-Dependent Learning |
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Definition
| Retrieval is better when the external context of the original memory matches the retrieval context |
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Term
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Definition
| Retrieval is better when int he same internal state (psychological) as during encoding |
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Term
Hormones and Memory
Estrogen |
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Definition
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Term
Hormones and Memory
Norepinephrine, epinephrine, cortisol
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Definition
arousal
activate amygdala
affect memory Strength |
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Hormones and Memory
Cortisol |
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Definition
Retrieval
Dose-response curve |
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Term
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Definition
| have trouble remembering what happened in the past |
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Definition
| have trouble remembering new things |
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Term
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Definition
mental deterioration
leads to confusiona nd discomfort |
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Term
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Definition
Buildup of proteins and plaques kill cells
progressive loss of episodic, semantic and procedural memory |
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Term
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Definition
| Memories fade over time unless they are used |
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Term
| Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve |
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Definition
| meaninless material decays rapidly, then reaches a plateau, after which little is forgotten |
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Term
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Definition
| One Item prevents us from forming a rubust memory for another item |
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Term
Failure of Storage
Encoding Failure |
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Definition
| info never encoded for long-term memory |
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Term
Failure of Storage
Consolidaton failure
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Definition
| information was encoded but not stored |
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Term
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Definition
| Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be retreved |
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Definition
information is stored partially, and storage of new info is influenced by existing info
rabricated memories and eyewitness accuracy |
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Motgivated Forgetting
Suppression |
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Definition
| Intentionally putting an event or information out of mind so as not to remember it |
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Term
Motivated forgetting
Repression |
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Definition
| Non-intentionally putting an event or information out of mind so as not to remember it |
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Term
| Edward Tolman: Latent Learning |
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Definition
3 groups of rats in a maze
group 1 always reinforced when reachiing the goal
group 2 never reinforced when it reached the goal
group 3 no reinforcement for the first 10 days then reinforced on the 11th day when it reached the goal
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Definition
cognitive processes are centarl to learning
active info processing |
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Definition
| A cluster of related concepts taht provides a framework for thinking about objects, events or ideas |
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| A cluster of knowledge about sequences of interrelated, specific events and actions expected to occur in particular settings |
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| mental representation of a visual concept |
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| the process of considering alternatives and choosing among them systematically |
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| cognitive strategies used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks |
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Definition
working backwards
searching for analogies
means-end analysis |
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| Obstacles to problem solving |
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Definition
mental set
functional fixdness
self-imposed limitations |
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Definition
difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically used for one purpose could be used for another
mount a candle on wall with box of tacks |
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Definition
using unnecessary restrictions, not thinking "outside the box"
connecting 9 dots in a square form |
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| Dual Process model of cognition |
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Definition
two kinds of cognitive processing
concious and unconcious |
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Definition
| use of fautly euistics in decision making about matters of fact |
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Definition
| tendency to seek to confirm instead of falsify our beliefs |
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| Tendency, after learning about an event, to believe that one could have predicted the event in advance |
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Definition
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Definition
| tenency to rely too heavily on one piece of information, often the one that appeared first |
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| Tendency to assume that, once something is categorized, it shares all features of other members in that category |
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Definition
| tendency to judge probabilities of events by how readily examples come to mind |
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Definition
| a means of communicating thoughts and feelings using a system of socially shared but arbitrary symbols arranged according to rules of grammar |
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Definition
Smallest units of sound in a spoken language
vowels, consonants |
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Definition
smallest units of meaning in language
words |
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| aspect of grammar that specifies the rules for arranging and combining words to form phrases and sentences |
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| study of meaning derived from morphemes, words, and sentences |
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Definition
Demonstration of how speech perception involves both auditory and visual info
hippy saying ba/ga/da |
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Definition
| impairment of language, affecting the productionor comprehension of speech and the ability to read or write |
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Definition
words that carry syntatic information, such as conjunctions, determiners, prepositions
articles and small helping words |
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Definition
| words that carry semantic information, such as adjectives, adverbs, nouns and verbs |
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Definition
damage to frontal lobe
non-fluent speech, have content words but no function words |
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Definition
Damage to temporal Lobe
fluent speech, content words absent but function words present
rambling |
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Definition
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| observed his mother learning symbols and learned to understand the english language |
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| Learned to mimic human speech intelligently |
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