theory suggests predictions for research

research suggests changes in the theory

explains a set of facts or obervations

can be tested (falsifiable)

observe systematically

maximize objectivity

generalize from specific observations

empirical

quantitative

predictive

replicable

Wilhelm Wundt (1879)

conscious experience is composed of mental elements

Edward B. Tichener

brought wundt's methods to america

hoped to create a periodic table of mental elements

results not replicable

William James

stream of consciousness

the contents aren't interesting, but the purpose of mental processes is

John B. Watson

behavior is caused by events in the environment, not biology or inheritance, and not mental events

focus on observable behavior

want to predict and control behavior

Wolfgang Kohler

people solve problems through "insight" (mental processes)

Max Wertheimer & Kurt Koffka

our minds iterpret and organize our experience of environmental events in predictable ways

subjective contours (square in circles)

ambiguous figures (rabbit/duck and old/young lady)

mental processes must be studied to understand human behavior and experience

computer systems model human cognition

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

humans are gifted with free will

motivated to find meaning and purpose

goal is to understand what makes us uniquely human and use this to support personal growth and well being

Martin Seligman

scientific study of the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

William Hamilton

characteristice that promote the survival and reproduction of the genes responsible for them become more frequent in the speciess

Charles Darwin

individuals best adapted to their environment survive to reproduce

hypothesis

test

gather data

analyze result

replicate the results

a statement predicting the outcome of a scientific study

testable description of relationship between events

sample that mirrors the population of interest

includes subgroups in teh same proportion as found in the population

the variable the researcher manipulates 

the cause in the cause and effect

the variable the researcher measures

the effect in the cause-and-effect relationship

natural experiments

to what extent are two variables related

when high values of one variable are associated with high values of another variable

vary in the same direction

when high values of one variable are associated with low values of another

vary in opposite directions

how close depends on the correlation coefficient, the higher the number the stronger the correlation

doesn't matter if negative or positive -.9>.8

an involuntary response to a stimulus

knee-jerk when tapped

learning phase during which a cr is established

increases rapidly and plateus

gradual decrease in and elimination of the CR

occurs when the cs is presented repeatedly without the UCS

sudden reemergence of an extinguished CR

Occurs when cs is presented after a pause in exinction trials

when an established CS is paired witha neutral stimulus, the neutral stimulus ecomes a cs

Pair a CS with a neutral light and the light alone soon alicits the CR

Classical conditioning to an unpleasent UCS

Little albert-loud piercing noise shown when he sees a white rat, soon the rat and other white furry objects scare him

cat placed in a box with fish outside, cat has to pull a rope to get out

acidentally finds correct solution

put back in the box repeatedly, time to escape decreases gradually

If a response occurs in the presence of a stimulus and is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the bond between stimulus and response will be strengthened

learning occurs through trial and error

increases the probability of a response occuring when presented after the response

mouse press bar, get food

linking a number of interrelated behaviors to forma longer series

the chicken doing the obstacle course

increases the probability of a response occuring when removed after the response (reward)

press bar, electrified floor turned off

REMOVED NOT punished

decreases te probability of a reponse when an unpleasant consequence is presented or a pleasant consequence is removed

press bar, get shocked

Stimulus that indicates that reinforcement or punishment will follow a specific behavior

light on, bar ress results in conswquence

light off, bar press results in no consequence

behaviors reinforced only occasionally

slower to extinguish than those reinforced continuously

reinforces appear after a certain set number of responses

factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product are completed

Reinforces appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial

Slot machine pay-offs

reinforcers appear after a fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses

weekly or monthly paychecks

reinforcers appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial

random visits from the boss, who delivers praise.

punishment can result in immediate change in behavior, often making it an easy solution

intense irrational or excessive fears

feared object or situtation is avoided

people acquire phobias via classical conditioning

they then avoid their feared stimulus

avoidance produces negative reinforcement

nerve cells

fundamental unit in the brain and nervous system

conduct impulses through the nervous system

contains cell's DNA

determines cell's "firing"

support cells of the nervous system

help for new synapses

respond to injury

form myelin sheath covering of axons

At rest, the neuron is polarized

inside is more negatively charged than the outside

Voltage gated channels in the membrane open

charge shoots down the dendrite

positive sodium ions flow rapidly into cell, potassium flows out more slowly

charge changes from negative to positive

end of axon

contains synaptic vesicles with neurotransmitters (NT)

Release of Neuro transmittor from axon terminal

Bind to receptor site on receiving cell dendrite

activity of Neurotransmitter halted via chemical breadown or reuptake into the axon terminal

sensory input- sensory neurons carry messages from sense receptors towards the CNS

Muscle movement- motor neurons carry messages from CNS toward muscles and glands

responsible for bodily arousal

mobilizes body to respond to danger and stress

responsible for bodily calm

regulates body for rest and digestion

parasympathetic- calming

sympathetic- alerting (danger and stress)

when one is ctive the other is passive

HindBrain

Medulla

regulates sleep

connects cortex and cerebellum

balance, coordination and learning of movement, order

Limbic System

Hypothalamus

monitors blood to determine and mainatain internal body states

controls endocrine system

regulates appetites

emotions

Limbic System

language, memory, executive functions - Prefrontal

sends signals to muscles- motor

mimicry and empathy - mirror

Perception of space

body location, object location, speech location

somatosensory cortex-touch pressure temp, pain

visual cortex

vision

coordinates with other areas of the cortex

Auditory Cortex

hearing, language, comprehension, autobiographical memories

Computed Tomography (CT)

2-D X-ray slices

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Magnetic energy pulses and radio waves create images

Positron Emission Tomography

Shows areas of high glucose metabolism, associated with brain activity