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| All of a person's genetic material |
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| Observable characteristics (physical and psychological) |
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| Dominant recessive genes principle, sex-linked genes, sex-limited genes, genetic imprinting, and polygenetic inheritance |
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| Dominant recessive genes principle |
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| in the pressence of a dominant gene, a recessive gene will not be expressed. (Tongue curling) |
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| men more likely to have x-linked deseases then females because they only have one x chromosome. (Men XY, women XX) |
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| occurs equally in both sexes but is exerted mainly in one sex or the other (breast development vs. facial hair) |
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| mechanism in which gene expression depends on parental origin (prader willi syndrome and Angelman Syndrome). Genetic expression depends on contributing parent. |
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| many genes interact to influence a characteristic |
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| An estimate of the variance within a population that is due to heredity, evidence comes from twins and adoption studies |
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| Twin and adoption studies |
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Twin studies: Compare groups of identical and fraternal twins
Adoption Studies: Compare adopted children to their biological and adopted parents. |
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Direct and indirect influences.
Interactions like shyness and social support. Depth perception in infants: bionocular vision develops at about 3-4 months of age, when are infants wary of height? |
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| Depth perception in infants |
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Definition
| 6 to 14 month infants will not crawl to deep side of visual cliff |
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| Depth perception in infants 2 |
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Definition
| 2 to 4 month old infants show differenece in heart rate when placed on shallow and deep sides |
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| Depth perception in infants 3 |
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| depth perception is innate. more wariness by crawlers than age-matched non-crawlers. avoidance of deep side occurs at relatively the same time as crawling begins |
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| evolution is the gradual change in the frequency of various genes across time, helps provide explanations for behavior that is difficult to otherwise explain (grasping reflex in infants) |
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| developmental research: focuses on the development of a phenomenon. |
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| individuals of different ages compared at the same time. this is time efficient but their is no information about individual change provided, just differences. |
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| cohort effect (cross-sectional approach) |
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| a group of people born or who began some activity at about the same time |
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| some individuals are studied over a period of time. Advantages: provides information about individual change and early experiences on later development. Disadvantages: costs time and money, attrition and resulting bias, separating effects of age and of changes in society |
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| combined cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches. Advantages: overcomes disadvantages of cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches. Disadvantages: complex, expensive, and time consuming. |
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| studying development in infancy |
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Definition
| visual preference method: Robert Fantz: "looking chamber", examined infants looking time. Habituation: decreased responsiveness following repeating presentations of a stimulus. Dishabituation: renewed interest, permits conclusions about ability to discriminate stimuli |
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| Piaget's views on development and adaptation, piaget's stages of develepment, vygotsky. |
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| piaget's views on development |
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Definition
| driving force is internal, equilibration: effort by organism to remain in harmony with its environment, disequilibrium results from cognitive conflict, dynamic process stability comes about through changes |
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| schemes: mental representation. Assimiliation: interpreting new experiennces in the context of previous knowledge. Accommodation: To make a change in light of new information. |
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| piaget's stages of development: sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operations. |
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Definition
1. Sensorimotor stage: birth to age 2, coordination of sensory experience and physical motor movments. Milestone: object permanance: objects continue to exist in the world even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Baillargion work: evidence of object permanance in infants as young as three months.
2. preoperational stage: age 2 to 7. Operations reversible mental proceses. symbolic function: use of words, pretend play, deffered imitation. Egocentrism: trouble seeing world from others perspective. Difficulty manipulating information in a logical fashion, centration, lack of reversibility. Lack concept of conservation: conservation is the understanding that certain properties of an object do not change when the objects appearance is changed in a superficial way.
3. concrete operation stage. Age 7 to 11 years. operational though is internalized and reversalbe: limited to concrete objects, difficulty with abstract ideas and thinking about possibilities. ability to conserve
4. Formal operations. Adolescence. Abstract thought: thinkinga bout thinking rather than thinking about objects, amelia bedelia. Hypothetical deductive reasoning, thinking freed from experience. Adolescent egocentrism: imaginary audience, personal fable. |
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| social contretuist approach: world around us help us construct what we know and do. Focus on con-construction of knowledge. Structure of sociohistorical context defines the structure of individual though, cultural tools. Social (external) to psychological internal development. Zone of proximal development (ZPD): Range between what a child can do alone and whate can be accomplished with a more skilled partner. Scaffolding: Changing level of support |
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| Social Development (Attachment) |
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Definition
| Strong affection that humans have with special people in their lives, begins with their first caregiver. Quality of infant-parent bound is vitally important: the continuing quality of the parent-child relationship also influences later development. |
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| Theories of attachment (psychoanalysts and behaviorts) |
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Definition
| feeding drives attachment, harry hallow's monkeys |
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| Theories of attachment (ethological theory [john bowlby]) |
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| attachment is an evolved resonse that promotes survival. Based on the theory of imprinting in animals. Built-in infant behaviors help: keep the parents nearby, protect the baby from danger, provide support in exploring environment. Common infant behaviors: crying, cooing, babbling, smiling, clinging, non-nutritional sucking, following. Goal: proximity promotion. According to Bowlby, attachment goes through four phases: 1) pre attachment (birth to six weeks), built in signals bring new borns into close contact with caregivers. 2) attachment in the making (six weeks to six to eight monts). react differently to caregivers then to strangers, develop a sense of thrust. 3) clear cut attachment phase (eight months to three years). separation anxiety, use caregiver as a secure base for exploring the world. 4) Formation of a reciprocal relationship (three years and older). separation protest declines, understanding of self ad caregiver as separate entities. Proximity is maintained mentally in addition to physically. |
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| Measuring Attachment: strange situation |
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Definition
| mary ainsworth developed a labratory procedure for measuring the quality of attachment for children ages 1 to 2 years: involves short separations from and reunions with the parent. The strange situation: mother and baby in room alone, strangers enters talks with mom. strangers tries to play with baby. mom leaves stranger alone with baby. mom returns, stranger leaves. |
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| 1) secure attachment (65% - 70%) baby uses parents as a secure base, baby may be distressed by separation from parent, but when parent returns, baby seeks contact, is soothed. 2) avoidant attachment (15%) baby not distressed by parent's departure, baby responds similarly to strangers as to parent, baby unresponsive to parent during reunion. 3) resistnat attachment (10%) baby remain close before departure, during reunion... baby = angry and resistant. 4) Disorganised attachment (5-10%) baby responds in a confused, contradictory way when reunited with parents, baby seems to reflect the greatest insecurity. |
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| 1) Sex = xx or xy chromosome: biological, 2) Gender = male or female, psychological. 3) Gender identity: the individuals private experience of self as female of male which is formed early in childhood and is exremely resistant to change. 4) Gender role: the set of behaviors socially defined as appropriate for one's sex. 5) Male vs. Female: across cultures, males are more instrumental than females, competive active, independent, aggressive, and self-assertive. Females are expressive, gentle, emotional |
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| 1) proposes that children's understanding of gender develops through the constrcution of gender schema. Schema: a network of associations that help a person process and make sense of new information (age, ethnicity, gender). Gender schemas are expecially salient because gender is so closely tied to physical appearances. However, gender specific schemas cannot be accomplished until children have specific cognitive competencies. |
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| Gender constancy. 3 stages |
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Definition
| 1) Gender identity (~30 months): children become aware of their own gender - most important for developing schemas. 2) gender stability (3 to 4 years): children understand that gender is stable overtime. 3) gender constancy (5 to 7 years): children understand that gender is invariant in spite of superficial changes in appearance or activities - importance of genitals |
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| Marcia's identity statuses: developed four identity statuses these are not stages. important to distinguish between: crisis/exploration, choosing among alternatives. commitment: personal investment. (identity achievement, moratorium, identity foreclosure, identity diffusion... |
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