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| using information to determine if a conclusion is valid or reasonable |
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| attempting to select the best alternative among several options |
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| finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal |
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| using a belief of rule to determine if a conclusion is valid/logically sound. Reasoning from a general statement to specific instances |
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| using examples or instances to determine if a rule or conclusion is likely to be true. reasoning from specific statements to general conclusions |
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| a procedure that, if followed correctly, will always yield the correct answer |
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| mental shortcuts used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to move from an initial state to a goal state |
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| making a decision on the answer that most easily comes to mind |
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| placing a person or object in a category if that person or object is similar to one's prototype for that category |
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| if presented with related base rate information and specific information, we tend to ignore the base rate and focus on the specific information |
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| the tendency, in making judgments, to rely on the first piece of information encountered |
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| in decision making, the tendency to emphasize the potential losses or potential gains from at least one alternative |
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| the tendency for people to strongly prefer avoiding losses than acquiring gains |
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| normative decision theories |
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| attempt to define how people should make decisions |
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| descriptive decision theories |
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| attempt to predict how people actually make choices, not to define ideal choices |
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| problems which have specific goals, clearly defined solution paths, and clear expected solutions |
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| problems which do not have clear goals, solutions paths, or expected solutions |
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| how do you solve a well-defined problem? |
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Definition
1. break the problem into subgoals
2. work backward from the goal state
3. restructure the problem |
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| a new way of thinking about a problem that aids its solution |
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| problem-solving strategy that worked in the past |
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| cognitive bias that limits a person to using objects only in the way it is traditionally used |
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| a system of communication using sounds, written words, and/or signed words according to grammatical rules |
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| the basic sounds of speech, the building blocks of language. Humans have access to 869, English has 40 |
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| the smallest language units that have meaning, including suffixes and prefixes (walked = "walk" and "ed") |
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| a system of rules that enables us to communicate with others |
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| the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language |
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| starts at about 4 months, infant spontaneously utters various sounds. children of deaf parents babble with their hands |
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| the distinctive mode of speech that adults adopt when speaking to babies and very young children. helps infants understand you are talking to them and helps them understand the langauge |
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| the process of identifying boundaries between words in spoken langauge |
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| around 2 years of age, children start uttering two-word sentences that consist mainly of nouns and verbs |
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| B.F Skinner's Verbal Behavior |
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Definition
| theoretical book in which skinner argues that language is a result of learning |
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| argued against skinner that humans are born with a "language acquisition device" programmed in the brain to learn language |
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| chomsky's idea that there is a set of highly abstract, unconscious rules that are common to all language |
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| the sound and order of words in sentences |
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| the implicit meanings of sentences |
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| Critical period in langauge |
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| between 3 and 7 years old |
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| monkey raised alongside an infant in a family, could only say four words: mama, cup, up, papa |
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| raised with the hope to prove chomsky wrong in stating that only humans could learn language. learned 125 signed but sentence structure was blabber |
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| raised to learn american sign language. learned 350 signs while being raised in a house with a family |
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| decatur monkey that was raised to learn and speak using the lexigram |
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| decatur monkey that was raised to learn and speak using the lexigram |
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| the ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges |
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Definition
1. how many underlying factors are in the data set
2. which measures/tasks do the best job of measuring each factor
3. are the factors correlated with one another |
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Definition
| british psychologist and statistician who developed a prototype of factor analysis and coined the term "g factor" |
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| finding that when you examine correlations between any two measures of cognitive ability, you will always get a positive correlation |
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| (general intelligence) both a mental ability and a statistical variable that summarizes positive correlations among all measures of cognitive ability. spearman defines g as a "mental energy" |
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| two-factor theory of intelligence |
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Definition
| spearman's theory that performance on all mental tests is a product of g and a specific factor. all specific factors are uncorrelated |
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Definition
| argued that there was no g, only 7 primary abilities |
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| LL Thurstone's primary abilities |
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Definition
1. Verbal Comprehension
2. Reasoning
3. Perceptual Speed
4. Numeric Ability
5. World Fluency
6. Associative Memory
7. Spatial Visualization |
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Term
| how are spearman and thurstone different? |
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Definition
1. spearman threw away measures of g that could not fully explain that measure and other measures in the test battery
2. spearman used school grades and perceptual tasks as measures of intelligence, thurstone used psychometrically reliable and valid mental ability tests
3. spearman's factor analysis did not allow for multiple factors, thurstones did not allow for a general factor |
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Term
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Definition
| the mechanics of intelligence, how we acquire new knowledge. the ability to solve novel problems. decreases over time |
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| crystallized intelligence |
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Definition
| the products of intelligence, the knowledge we've acquired. grows fairly consistently |
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| CHC model of intelligence |
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Definition
splits abilities into 3 stratum:
1. narrow (short-term memory for letters)
2. broad (fluid intelligence)
3. General (g) |
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Definition
| proposed 8 different types of intelligence, all are uncorrelated. used neuropsychological "data" to come up with the theory |
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| verbal, mathematical, spatial, and naturalistic intelligence measures all for a g factor. |
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| was asked by the french government to find a way to identify children who would need special needs classes |
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| developed cognitive tests, these tests looked to determine how well it discriminated between children of different ages |
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| measure of intelligence test devised by binet. if you are 7 and can pass the test that 9 year olds should be able to, your mental age is now 9 |
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| revision of binet-simon test for english test-takes. made by lewis terman |
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Definition
| Originally... (mental age)/(chronological age) x 100 |
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| new intelligence quotient |
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Definition
| essentially a z score comparing a child to everyone else the child's age. |
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Definition
| first major group-administered test. given to recruits during WWI. results determined job classification and potential for leadership positions |
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Definition
| non-verbal compliment to the army alpha test. used to test illiterate, unschooled, and non-english speaking recruits |
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| test designed to determine whether someone can learn something. aptitude is the capacity to learn. (ex. SAT) |
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| tests designed to measure what you already know |
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| correlations between two measures/abilities are smaller if the range of scores that you are examining is smaller than what you would find in the population |
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| multiple age groups of subjects studied at the same time |
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| one age group of individuals is measured multiple times throughout their life |
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| correlation between IQ at 11 and IQ at 80 = 0.67 |
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| the heritability of intelligence is somewhere between 0.5 and 0.8 |
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Definition
| birth order may have an effect on intelligence. birthday and placement in school has an effect on intelligence |
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Definition
| the substantial and long-sustained increase of both gf and gc scores measured in many parts of the world from roughtly 1930 to the present day |
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Term
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Definition
| SAT takers who scored in the 99th percentile were between 3 and 5 times more likely to get their doctorate, secure a patent, publish an article, or write a novel |
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Definition
a brief state of a whole organism that involves three things:
1. physiological arousal
2. expessive behavior
3. conscious experience |
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Definition
| emotion = awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli |
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Definition
| emotion arousing stimulus triggers both our physiological response and the subjective experience of emotion |
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| study with fake drug injected into participants, then "confederate" displayed forewarned emotion and most participants followed |
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| two- factor theory of emotion |
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Definition
| emtion is based on two factors, physiological arousal and a cognitive label |
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Definition
| hot guy on bridge. physiological response to bridge was associated with physiological response to hotness of guy |
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Definition
1. arousal to perform tasks
2. social communication |
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Definition
| tendency of facial muscles to trigger corresponding feelings such as anger, fear, happiness |
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| the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of other people |
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Definition
| the study of social behavior/society including its origins, developments, organization, networks, and institutions |
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Definition
| how we think about others |
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| how we are influenced by others |
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| how we interact with others |
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Definition
| we explain someone's behavior by either a dispositional attribution or social attribution |
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| fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| we are more likely to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the the impact of the person when observing others |
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Definition
| the tendency for people to attribute positive events to their own character and negative events to the situation |
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| harold kelley's theory of attributes |
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Definition
| three factors determine whether we attribute a person's action to the person's disposition or to the environmenet |
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Definition
| a favorable or unfavorable evaluation reaction towards something or someone |
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Definition
| the percieved social pressure to engage or not engage in a behavior |
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| perceived behavioral control |
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Definition
| our perception of the ease or difficulty or performing a particular behavior |
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| cognitive dissonance theory |
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Definition
| we act to reduce mental discomfort that is caused when two of our thoughts are inconsistent |
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Definition
| the process by which a message induces change in beliefs attitudes or behaviors |
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| central route to persuation |
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Definition
| occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts |
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| peripheral route to persuation |
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Definition
| occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness |
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| Four aspects of persuasion |
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Definition
1. source
2. channel
3. message
4. receiver |
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Definition
| a credible communicator is perceived as both expert and trustworthy |
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Definition
| a delayed impact of a message that occurs when an initially discounted message becomes effective, as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it |
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Definition
| speaker looks directly into the audience's eyes. speaks fast. argues against their own self-interest |
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Definition
| both physicall attractiveness and similarity |
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Definition
| cognitive bias where one particular trait, especially good characteristics, influences or extends to other qualities of the person |
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| primacy effect in persuasion |
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Definition
| information presented first usually has the most influence |
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Definition
| the motivation to think and analyze. assessed by agreement with items such as "the notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me" |
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| 6 principles of influence |
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Definition
1. Authority
2. liking
3. social proof
4. reciprocity
5. consistency
6. scarcity |
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Term
| problems with stanford prison experiment |
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Definition
1. not an experiment
2. experimenter bias
3. what are the independent and dependent variables?
4. very unethical |
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Term
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Definition
| line conformity experiment |
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