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| A set of procedures used to gather and interpret information with minimal error. |
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| Humans think they know more than they actually do. |
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| Once the information is given or the behavior occurs, it seems obvious. |
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1. How do we know that?
2. Does evidence justify a cause and effect relationship?
3. Possible alternative explainations
4. What is this person's agenda
5. Effect..Compared to what? |
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X event causes Y event. Start with a hypothesis "Sitting at the front of the room makes you faster than sitting at the back."
1. Manipulate cause (ex.gender)
2. Hold everything else constant (control)
3.Must have a comparison group. |
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| Any condition or factor that can be manipulated, controlled, or measured. |
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| Manipulated variable (Place in the room)"X" |
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| Any factors or conditions other than the independant variable that could cause observed changes to the dependant variable |
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The assignment of participants to groups with systamatic differences.
solution:random assignment |
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When a researcher influences the behavior of a subject, expectations (voice tone etc.), not necessarily intentional.
solution: double blind studies |
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| Group exposed to the independant variable. (real pill) |
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| Similar to the experimental group EXCEPT the independant variable. (Placeabo) |
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| PROS / CONS of experimental method |
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PRO:Allows you to make causal statements
CONS:Limitations (unethical) |
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| Descriptive Research Methods |
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| yeild descriptions of behavior rather than causal explainations. |
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| An in depth study of an individual/ a few individuals via observation, interviews, and perhaps psychological testing. |
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| PROS/CONS of a Case Study |
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Pros:Allows in depth analysis for investigation
CONS: cant establish the cause of observed behaviors. observer bias. don't know how applicable their findings are to larger groups or to different cultures. |
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| No manipulation, watching something occur in a natural setting. |
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PRO: Opportunity to study behavior in natural settings.
CONS:must wait for events to occur. cant establish cause->effect relationship. observer bias. |
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| Interviews/questionaires to gather information about the attitudes, beliefs, experiances, or behaviors of a large group of people. |
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PRO: Collects LOTS of information
CONS: can be effected by the question wording, the truthfullness of responses. |
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| strength and direction of the relationship between two variables (+ or -) |
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| 1: a perfect positive correlation, -1: a perfect negative correlation, 0: no correlation |
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| Activate muscles in the body |
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| from receptors in sense organs to CNS |
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| carry information between neurons |
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| 4 basic parts of a neuron |
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1.soma
2.dendrites
3.axon
4.terminal buttons |
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| neural impulse (how it fires) |
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1.receives signal from the sense receptors
2.stimulated by chemicals from surrounding neurons (This impulse is called ACTION POTENTIAL)
3.Electrical Charge travels down Axon
4.works like the wave |
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| The impulse fired by a neuron. |
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| How often do neurons fire? |
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further Action potentials are impossible for about 1MS (Absolute Refractory Period)
During about 2-4MS another Action Potential can occur but a stronger than usual stimulus is required (relativee refractory period) |
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| Once initiated, an Action Potential is the same strength and rate regardless of stimulus strength. |
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| a flow of chemicals accross the synaptic cleft between neurons (they dont touch!) communicates. |
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| The chemicals that communicate between neurons. |
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Broken down into the:
SOMATIC-sensory neurons and motor neurons working togather (finger touches hot surface, sends signal to brain, move finger)
AUTONOMIC-not under conscious control. Controls smooth muscles of internal organs, glands, and blood vessels.
*Parasymphathetic-Vegatative "resting." NON EMERGENCY RESPONSES.
*Symphetatic- FIGHT OR FLIGHT. |
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| Includes the spinal cord and brain. |
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| Attaches the brain to the rest of the body & transmits messages between brain and PNS. Protected by the spinal column and spinal fluid. |
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| vital involuntary functions (I.E. breathing, heart rate, salivating) |
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| sleeping, walking, dreaming. |
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| Sleep, Arousal, Attention |
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CRITICAL TO MOVEMENT. INCLUDES:
1. Amygdala-agression center, threat detection
2.Hippocampus-memory formation, regulates arousal.
3.Hypothalamus-regulates temperature, hunger, activity of ANS, and hormone release via pituitary.
4. thalamus-sensory relay station |
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The two hemispheres of the brain. connected by the corpus callossum
1.Motor Cortex & Somatosensory Cortex
2.Broca's Area |
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| Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital |
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| Language production, in the frontal lobe. |
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| located in the parietal lobe |
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| located in the frontal lobe. |
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| planning, motivation, memory |
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| Long term memory, emotions, auditory cortex |
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| stimulization of sense organs, raw material. |
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| raw material -> finished product |
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| finished product -> raw material |
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| study of the relationship between physical stimulus and a sensory experiance |
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| Just noticeable difference |
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| lowest level of change in stimulus that can be noticed 50% of the time. |
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| respond more to color (not intensity) less sensitive, more acute |
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| respond in lower intensity of light. more sensitive but less acute. |
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| no rods or cones where the optic nerve leaves the eye. |
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| How information gets from the eyes to the brain |
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| there are three types of cones that sense either red, green, or blue light. |
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the theory that three types of cells increase / decrease their firing rate to produce certain colors.
-red/green
-yellow/blue
-white/black |
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| sound must travel through air and therefore cannot occur in a vaccuum. |
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"The whole can be greater than the sum of its parts"
-forms a figure and background
-grouping things that are close togather or similar
-closure continues broken lines etc.
-continuity (arrow through heart) |
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-retinal disperity (different view from each eye)
-convergence (body senses how much eyes look inward toward eachother while focusing..crosseyed). |
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-relative size
-interposition (object blocking another -> closer.
-linear perspective (parallel line converging in the distance)
-light/shadowing-nearby object reflect more light
-Texture gradient
-atmospheric pressure-far away things look "blue-er"
-motion parallax-we move toward objects, objects appear to be moving backwards & closer objects move faster than farther away objects. |
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| preceive object as unchanging irrespective of size, color, shape or brightness. |
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| preceive objects as having a constant size. |
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| our perception of the object doesnt meet with the true physical characteristics of the object. |
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state of focused awareness.
-goal directed- pay attention to what you want
-stimulus directed-pay attention to something that catches your attention (slamming book on table) |
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| What happens to unobtained information? |
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| Coded at some level but appears to be out of consciousness. |
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| learning predictable signals. "Pavlov's Dogs." |
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| any stimulus that naturally occurs |
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| the natural response to a stimulus |
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| neutral stimulus that becomes paired with a response. |
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| repeated pairing of CS with UCS -> CR |
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| CR becomes weaker over time and eventually stops occuring |
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| take a break, then present CS -> weaker CR |
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| automatic response to stimuli that has never been presented. |
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| responding differently to different stimuli that are distinct from eachother. |
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| What factors influence CC? |
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-the number of pairings of the CS and the UCS
-The intensity of the UCS
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| Edward Thorndike. Trial and error learning. |
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| a response followed by a satisfying reinforcer becomes more probable and a response followed by a disatisfying reinforcer is less likely. |
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| Adds something bad (spanking) |
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| Takes away something good (TV) |
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| Fixed Interval reinforcer |
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| reinforcer after a fixed period of time.(paid every 2 weeks) |
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| variable interval reinforcer |
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| reinforcer at random time (pop quiz) |
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| reinforcer after a fixed # of responses (paid for every 5 dolls you make) |
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| reinforcer after random # of responses (gambling) MOST EFFECTIVE! |
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| reinforcement is used to guide a response closer and closer to a final desired response. |
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| Learned Behavior turns toward instinctual behavior (racoon in circus is taught to put coin in piggy bank. Racoon eventually and instinctually tries to crack coin as if it is food) |
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| often permanant (get sick after eating bologna most likely won't eat it again) |
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| occurs in situations that would not be predicted by traditional conditioning theory. |
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| Adult beats up doll->child more likely to beat up doll than if they saw an adult act indifferent to the doll. |
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