Term
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Definition
| the awareness of what is going on around you |
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Definition
| psychologists who focus on behaviors and the external factors that influenced behaviors rather than on though processes |
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Definition
| A physician whose treatment of disease was based on suggestion |
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Definition
| an early term for hypnosis |
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Term
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Definition
| a procedure in which suggestion are used to change senstaions, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| the ease with which an individual can be hypnotized. Usually measured by assessing the degree to which an individual will respond to suggestions |
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Definition
| the notion that hypnosis can be used to take individuals back to earlier times in their lives |
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Term
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Definition
| the daily cucle of sleep and wakefulness. Circadian comes from the Latin words circa which means about, and dies which mean a day so circadian means about a day |
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Term
| electroencephalogram (EEG) |
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Definition
| a record of electrical activity in the brain. The term is derived from electro which reflects the fact that we are measuring electrical activity and encephalo which is based on the Greek word for brain |
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Term
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Definition
| the progess from Stage 1 sleep (light sleep) to Stage 4 sleep (deep sleep) and then back to Stage 1 sleep. A number of cycles occur each night |
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Definition
| sleep during which there are rapid eye movements. Occurs in most Stage 1 sleep and is often associated with dreaming |
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Term
| reticular activating system |
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Definition
| tracts that carry electrical stimulation between the brain stem and the cortex |
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Term
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Definition
| a cluster of neurons which inhibits the reticular activiation system from carrying arousal to the cortex |
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Term
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Definition
| a tract beginning in the pons, going through the geniculate in the thalamus, and leading to the occipital and other lobes of the brain. Activation from this system is responsible for rapid eye movements and possibly dreams |
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Term
| activation-synthesis theory |
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Definition
| a theory suggesting that dreams result from the random stimulation of memories stored in the cortex, primarily in the temporal lobe |
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Term
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Definition
| a sleep disorder in which individuals do not get enough good sleep |
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Term
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Definition
| drugs used to treat insomnia which work by reducing neurological arousal |
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Term
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Definition
| the amount of time required for half of a drug dose to be eliminated from the body. Drug effects are greatly reduced after the half-life |
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Term
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Definition
| the fact that when an individual stops taking a hypnotic drug, there may be a period in which the insomnia is worse than before the drug was taken |
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Term
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Definition
| a sleep disorder which involves excessive sleepiness |
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Term
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Definition
| a sleep disorder in which the individual is seized by irresistible sleep. The term comes from the Greek narco which means to numb and lepsy which means seizure |
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Term
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Definition
| a sleep disorder in which the individual's sleep is interrupted because breathing is interrupted. Apnea comes from a Greek word pnoia meaning breathing, and a meaning without, so apnea literally means without breathing |
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Definition
| a sleep disorder that involves frequent awakenings because of frightening dreams |
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Definition
| a sleep disorder that involves frequent awakening with a high state of fear which is not due to a frightening dream |
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Term
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Definition
| a sleep disorder that involves rising, walking, and carrying out activities while asleep |
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Definition
| drugs that change mood, level of consciousness and arousal |
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Term
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Definition
| the fact that different levels of a drug can result in different effects |
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Term
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Definition
| the fact that after many doses, a given dose of a drug may have less of an effect that it did orginally |
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Term
| cross-tolerance (for drugs) |
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Definition
| the fact that when tolerance for a drug develops, the individual may also develop tolerance for other drugs of the same type |
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Term
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Definition
| the physiological symptoms that occur when an individual stops taking a drug or reduces the level being taken |
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Term
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Definition
| the condition in which an individual must take drugs to avoid withdrawl symptoms |
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Term
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Definition
| drugs that reduce physiological arousal by reducing neurological activity in the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| drugs that increas physiological arousal by increasing neurological activity in the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| a disorder caused by amphetamines, the symptoms of which include confusion, hallucinations, and delusions |
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Term
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Definition
drugs that dull or numb sensory experience, usually because they reduce the neurological activity in the medulla of the brain stem.
(also called opitates) |
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Term
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Definition
| drugs (narcotics) that are derived from the opium poppy |
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Definition
| drugs that distort sensory experiences. They are similar in structure to neurotransmitters so they artificially stimulate activity in areas of the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| the notion that drugs are taken to adjust levels of arousal so individuals will be more comfortable and effective |
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Term
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Definition
| an area in the middle of the limbic system (mesolimbic area) which when activated produces pleasure |
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Term
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Definition
| problems associated with using drugs, such as needing higher levels of the drug, wishing to stop using the drug, and losin time getting, taking, and recovering from the drug |
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Term
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Definition
| problems that result from using drugs such as missing school or work |
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Term
| Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) |
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Definition
| a treatment for alcoholism in which individuals admit they have a problem and seek help from a higher power (God) and others who have gone through the same problems |
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Term
| D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) |
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Definition
| a program for children that is designed to reduce drug use by teaching the children about drugs and the problems they can cause |
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Term
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Definition
| a drug that reduces the pleasure produced by psychoactive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine |
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Term
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Definition
| a drug that blocks the pleasure produced by heroin and elminates heroin withdrawl symptoms |
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Term
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Definition
| a drug that causes severe nausea if alcohol is consumed after the drug is taken, and therefore it is used to treat alcoholism |
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Term
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Definition
| a drug that produces pleasure by stimulating the release of dopamine in the pleasure center, and therefore can be used as a subsitute for cigarettes |
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Term
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Definition
| a procedure that usually involves sitting quietly and possibly silently repeating a mantra. Some people believe it results in a higher state of consciousness |
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Term
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Definition
| a nonsense word or phrase that is repeated as part of meditation. The use of the mantra appears to block thoughts that might distract of disrupt the individual's relaxation |
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Term
| Transcendental meditation (TM) |
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Definition
| a popular form of meditation, the advocates of which believe results in a higher state of consciousness |
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Term
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Definition
| a technique in which individuals imagine performing physical movements, such as shooting a basketball. The notion is that the imagining will improve subsequent actual performace, but the evidence does not support that |
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Term
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Definition
| a relatively permanent change in behavior that is due to experience |
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Term
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Definition
| types of learning that appear to be controlled by environmental factors |
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Term
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Definition
| types of learning that appear to occur independently of environmental factors |
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Term
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Definition
| a type of conditioning in which a stimulus that does not elicit a response is consistently paired with a stimulus that can elicit a response such that later the stimulus can elicit the response |
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Term
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Definition
| a Russian physiologist who originally identified and studied classical conditioning |
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Term
| unconditioned stimulus (UCS) |
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Definition
| a stimulus that is able to elicit an unconditioned response; in Pavlos's reserach, the meat powder |
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Term
| unconditioned response (UCR) |
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Definition
| a response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus' in Pavlov's research, salivation |
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Term
| conditioned stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
| a stimulus which does not initially elicit a conditioned response but which after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus ia ble to elicit the conditioned response |
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Term
| conditioned response (CR) |
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Definition
| a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus after conditioning has occured. The conditioned response is similar to the unconditioned response |
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Term
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Definition
| a psychologist who demonstrated with "Little Albert" that fears could be learned through classical conditioning |
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Term
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Definition
| a colleague of John B. Watson who participated in the research on the classical conditioning of fear in "Little Albert" |
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Term
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Definition
| an 11-month-old child for whom a white rat and a loud noise were paired. The result was that little Albert developed a classically conditioned fear of the rat |
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Definition
| irrational fears that are probably classically conditioned |
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Term
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Definition
| a disorder in which an individual gains sexual arousal from a nonhuman object, such as a shoe |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus can elicit the condition response |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which an individual learns which stimuli are associated with an unconditioned response and which stimuli are not |
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Term
| higher-order conditioning |
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Definition
| the process in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a conditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus takes on the ability to elicit the conditioned response |
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Term
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Definition
| the process of eliminating a classically conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| the fact that a classically conditioned response that has been extinguised will reoccur again when the conditioned stimulus is presented some time later |
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Term
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Definition
| a psychologist who identified the law of effect |
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Term
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Definition
| the fact that a response that is followed be a reward is more likely to be repeated in the future. Provides the basis for operant conditioning |
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Term
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Definition
| the process in which rewards (reinforements) are used to increase behaviors and punishments are used to decrease behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| a psychologist who systemtically studied and made popular operant conditioning |
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Term
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Definition
| a small chamber that contains a lever that can be pushed or a disk that can be pecked to make a response, usually to get a reinforcement |
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Term
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Definition
| an environment, usually a psychiatric ward, in which, when individuals behave well, they are given tokens that can later be exchanged for rewards (reinforcements) |
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Term
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Definition
| psychologists who believe that in studying behavior we should limit our attention to observable events, such as behaviors and their consequences, rather than unobservable events such as thinking |
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Term
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Definition
| something which follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be used again. Often called a reward |
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Term
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Definition
| something which when it follows a response increase the likelihood that the response will be used again |
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Term
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Definition
| something which when it is removed folloing a response increases the likelihood that the response will be used again |
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Term
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Definition
| something which follows a response and decreases the likelihood that the response will be used again |
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Term
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Definition
| something that serves as a reinforcement because it reduces a primary need such as hunger |
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Term
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Definition
| something that serves as a reinforcement but which does not directly reduce a primar need (e.g. money) |
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Term
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Definition
| the learning of an operant response to avoid receiving a punishment |
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Term
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Definition
| the learning of an operant response to escape from a punishment |
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Term
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Definition
| conditioning a complex response by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired response |
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Term
| generalization (of an operantly conditioned response) |
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Definition
| the use of an operant response in situations that are similar to the one in which the response was conditioned |
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Term
| discrimination (in operant conditioning) |
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Definition
| learning in what situations an operant response should not be used because it will not result in a reinforcement |
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Term
| extinction (of operant conditioning) |
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Definition
| reducing the use of an operantly conditioned response by not reinforcing the response |
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Term
| schedules of reinforcement |
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Definition
| differences in the consistency with which reinforcements are given (fixed, variable, ratio, interval) |
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Term
| fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement |
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Definition
| on this schedule, a reinforcement is given following a specific number of responses (e.g. after every five responses) |
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Term
| fixed interval schedule of reinforcement |
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Definition
| on this schedule, a reinforcement is given after a specific interval of time has elapsed during which the individual is responding (e.g. getting a reinforcement on the same day each week) |
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Term
| variable ratio schedule of reinforcement |
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Definition
| on this schedule, reinforcements are given following different numbers of responses (e.g. after 5 responses, then 2 responses, and then after 8 responses) |
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Term
| variable interval schedule of reinforcement |
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Definition
| on this schedule, reinforcements are given following different intervals of time during which the individual is responding (e.g. after 1 hour, then after 2 days, then after 8 hours) |
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Term
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Definition
| learning that ocurs without reinforcement but the response is used when its used leads to reinforcement |
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Term
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Definition
| learning how to get form one place to another by developing a cognitive map rather than learning a specific set of responses |
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Term
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Definition
| the finding of a solution to a problem by thinking about it and then "putting the pieces together" usually in a "flash" |
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Term
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Definition
| the learning of operant and emotional responses by simply watching others use the responses |
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Term
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Definition
| a group of cells (neurons) in the brain which when they fire together result in a though |
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Term
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Definition
| a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in learning |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which postsynaptic neurons become more sensitive and therefore more likely to respond to stimulation. This leads to the selective firing of posysynaptic neurons that is required for learning |
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Term
| NMDA (N-methyl-D-asparate) |
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Definition
| a substance that is released by the presynaptic neuron. When it stimulates receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, it leads to long-term potentiation of thaat neuron |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which we store and later retrieve information |
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Term
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Definition
| the first stage of memory; the stage in which incoming information is encoded and screened. It has a huge capacity but short duration |
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Term
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Definition
| the process of interpreting or attaching meaning to stimuli |
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Term
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Definition
| focusing attention on what is important at the time |
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Term
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Definition
| the second stage of memory; the stage inw hich thinking is done and in which information is processed for storage. It has a small capacity and short duration |
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Term
| magic number of short-term memory |
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Definition
| the fact that we can hold seven items, give or take two, in your short-term memory |
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Term
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Definition
| the process of recoding a number of times as on a "chunk" |
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Term
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Definition
| when looking for an item in the short-term memory, all items are examined simultaneously |
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Term
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Definition
| when looking for an item in the short-term memory, each item is considered separately in order |
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Term
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Definition
| when storing a memory, it is actively linked to as many other memories as possible, thus enhancing recall later |
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Term
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Definition
| when storing a memory, it is not linked to other memories, thus reducing the likelihood that it will be recalled later |
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Term
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Definition
| storing memories in terms of their meanings |
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Term
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Definition
| storing memories in terms of the superficial characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
| simply repeating an item to be recalled later; usually not effective |
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Term
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Definition
| building on a memory in the process of storage (a form of active and deep processing) |
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Term
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Definition
| strategies that are used to improve memory |
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Term
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Definition
| the third stage of memory; the stage in which all memories are stored. It has a huge capacity and long duration |
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Term
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Definition
| memories for facts and information |
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Term
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Definition
| memories for actions required to do things |
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Term
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Definition
| memories of which you are not aware but which can be brought back with clues |
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Term
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Definition
| memories for the meanings of words |
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Term
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Definition
| the notion that memories are stored in networks in the brain and that stimulating a network will lead to a memory |
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Term
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Definition
| the fact that the activation of one memory will activate other related memories (the stream of consciousness) |
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Term
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Definition
| the fact that activating a memory network increases the likelihood that it will be activated again in the future |
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Term
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Definition
| the type of recall in which information is retrieved without the aid of cues |
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Term
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Definition
| the type of recall in which information retrieval is aided by cues |
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Term
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Definition
| the type of recall in which an individual recognizes information in an array of possibilities |
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Term
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Definition
| the fact that if you learn material while in one particular place, you will be more likely to recall the material later if you are again in that place |
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Term
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Definition
| the fact that if you learn material while in one particular physiological state, you will be more likely to recall the material later if you are again in that state |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) |
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Definition
| an early psychologist who discovered that there is a sharp decline in memory in the first hour after learning |
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Term
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Definition
| the notion that forgetting is due to a decay in the memory over time |
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Term
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Definition
| the fact that something that at one time could not be remembered is remembered later |
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Term
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Definition
| the notion that forgetting occurs because other experiences interfere with the memories (disrupt the links to the memories) |
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Term
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Definition
| the fact that learning of new material can interfere with the recall of earlier learned material |
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Term
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Definition
| the fact that previously learned material can interfere with the recall of recently learned material |
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Term
| selective attention (and forgetting) |
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Definition
| the fact that sometimes we are not able to recall material because originally we did not attend to it enough and therefore it was nto put into long-term memory |
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Term
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Definition
| the fact that our orientation or mood influences what we recall |
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Term
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Definition
| a term for the way we have encoded or described something when putting it into memory and which influences later recall |
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Term
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Definition
| the notion that to reduce stress we automatically eliminate anxiety-provoking memories from consciousness and store them in the unconscious from which they cannot be recalled |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which we voluntarily stop thinking about something to avoid stress, but we can recall the material if we wish (contrast with repression) |
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Term
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Definition
| the early theorist who developed the notion of repression and the unconscious to explain the presence of symptoms for which a physiological cause could not be found |
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Term
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Definition
| memories that were supposedly repressed but later brought to consciousness (often associated with childhood sexual abuse) |
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Term
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Definition
| a structure in the brain that is crucial for processing memories for storage in the long-term memory |
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Term
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Definition
| a structure in the brain that plays role in the processing of emotional memories for storage in the long-term memory |
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Term
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Definition
| sets of neurons in which memories are stored; when the neurons fire the memory is generated |
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Term
| consolidation (of the memory) |
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Definition
| the strengthening of the connections among neurons that form memories (cell assemblies) |
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Term
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Definition
| a shaking of the brain which results in a loss of memories |
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Term
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Definition
| a brief but intense firing of neurons that can resut in a loss of memories |
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Term
| electrovonvulsive therapy (ECT) |
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Definition
| the administration of an electrical shock to the brain to reduce depression (commonly called "shock therapy"). A side effect can be a loss of a memory |
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Term
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Definition
| a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in a memory |
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Term
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Definition
| adrenaline is a hormone that increases arousal and can aid in memory |
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Term
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Definition
| the energy source for the neuron in the brain (commonly called "blood sugar"); low levels can reduce memories |
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Term
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Definition
| the sudden loss of memories from a specific period of time |
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Term
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Definition
| the loss of delarative memories from the period before the damage to the brain occured |
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Term
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Definition
| the inability to form new declarative memories after damage to the brain has occured |
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Term
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Definition
| deterioration of the hippocampus and amygdala due to a deficiency of viatmin B1 which results in anterograde amnesia |
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Term
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Definition
| the inability to recall declarative memories from beofre about the age of 3 or 4 |
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Term
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Definition
| a progressive memory loss due to deterioration of the brain (sometimes called "senility") |
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Term
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Definition
| death of neurons due to insufficient blood supply (commonly called a cerebral infarct); can result in dementia |
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Term
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Definition
| death of neurons due to insufficient blood supply (commonly called a stroke); can result in dementia |
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Term
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Definition
| a serious problem with memory due to a deteriration of the brain (primarily the hippocampus) characterized by tangled axons, plaques at the synapes and holes in the bodies of the neurons |
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