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Psychology - Professor Holmes
Exam 2
164
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
10/05/2010

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Term
Consciousness
Definition
the awareness of what is going on around you
Term
behaviorist
Definition
psychologists who focus on behaviors and the external factors that influenced behaviors rather than on though processes
Term
Franz Mesmer
Definition
A physician whose treatment of disease was based on suggestion
Term
Mesmerism
Definition
an early term for hypnosis
Term
hypnosis
Definition
a procedure in which suggestion are used to change senstaions, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
Term
hypnotizability
Definition
the ease with which an individual can be hypnotized. Usually measured by assessing the degree to which an individual will respond to suggestions
Term
hypnotic age regression
Definition
the notion that hypnosis can be used to take individuals back to earlier times in their lives
Term
circadian rhythm
Definition
the daily cucle of sleep and wakefulness. Circadian comes from the Latin words circa which means about, and dies which mean a day so circadian means about a day
Term
electroencephalogram (EEG)
Definition
a record of electrical activity in the brain. The term is derived from electro which reflects the fact that we are measuring electrical activity and encephalo which is based on the Greek word for brain
Term
sleep cycle
Definition
the progess from Stage 1 sleep (light sleep) to Stage 4 sleep (deep sleep) and then back to Stage 1 sleep. A number of cycles occur each night
Term
REM sleep
Definition
sleep during which there are rapid eye movements. Occurs in most Stage 1 sleep and is often associated with dreaming
Term
reticular activating system
Definition
tracts that carry electrical stimulation between the brain stem and the cortex
Term
raphe system
Definition
a cluster of neurons which inhibits the reticular activiation system from carrying arousal to the cortex
Term
PGO system
Definition
a tract beginning in the pons, going through the geniculate in the thalamus, and leading to the occipital and other lobes of the brain. Activation from this system is responsible for rapid eye movements and possibly dreams
Term
activation-synthesis theory
Definition
a theory suggesting that dreams result from the random stimulation of memories stored in the cortex, primarily in the temporal lobe
Term
insomnia
Definition
a sleep disorder in which individuals do not get enough good sleep
Term
hypnotics
Definition
drugs used to treat insomnia which work by reducing neurological arousal
Term
half-life
Definition
the amount of time required for half of a drug dose to be eliminated from the body. Drug effects are greatly reduced after the half-life
Term
rebound effect
Definition
the fact that when an individual stops taking a hypnotic drug, there may be a period in which the insomnia is worse than before the drug was taken
Term
hypersomnia
Definition
a sleep disorder which involves excessive sleepiness
Term
narcolepsy
Definition
a sleep disorder in which the individual is seized by irresistible sleep. The term comes from the Greek narco which means to numb and lepsy which means seizure
Term
sleep apnea
Definition
a sleep disorder in which the individual's sleep is interrupted because breathing is interrupted. Apnea comes from a Greek word pnoia meaning breathing, and a meaning without, so apnea literally means without breathing
Term
nightmare disorder
Definition
a sleep disorder that involves frequent awakenings because of frightening dreams
Term
night terror
Definition
a sleep disorder that involves frequent awakening with a high state of fear which is not due to a frightening dream
Term
sleep walking disorder
Definition
a sleep disorder that involves rising, walking, and carrying out activities while asleep
Term
psychoactive drugs
Definition
drugs that change mood, level of consciousness and arousal
Term
dose-dependent effects
Definition
the fact that different levels of a drug can result in different effects
Term
tolerance (for drugs)
Definition
the fact that after many doses, a given dose of a drug may have less of an effect that it did orginally
Term
cross-tolerance (for drugs)
Definition
the fact that when tolerance for a drug develops, the individual may also develop tolerance for other drugs of the same type
Term
withdrawl
Definition
the physiological symptoms that occur when an individual stops taking a drug or reduces the level being taken
Term
dependence (on drugs)
Definition
the condition in which an individual must take drugs to avoid withdrawl symptoms
Term
depressants
Definition
drugs that reduce physiological arousal by reducing neurological activity in the brain
Term
stimulants
Definition
drugs that increas physiological arousal by increasing neurological activity in the brain
Term
amphetamine psychosis
Definition
a disorder caused by amphetamines, the symptoms of which include confusion, hallucinations, and delusions
Term
narcotics
Definition

drugs that dull or numb sensory experience, usually because they reduce the neurological activity in the medulla of the brain stem.

(also called opitates)

Term
opiates
Definition
drugs (narcotics) that are derived from the opium poppy
Term
hallucinogens
Definition
drugs that distort sensory experiences. They are similar in structure to neurotransmitters so they artificially stimulate activity in areas of the brain
Term
self-medication
Definition
the notion that drugs are taken to adjust levels of arousal so individuals will be more comfortable and effective
Term
pleasure center
Definition
an area in the middle of the limbic system (mesolimbic area) which when activated produces pleasure
Term
drug dependence
Definition
problems associated with using drugs, such as needing higher levels of the drug, wishing to stop using the drug, and losin time getting, taking, and recovering from the drug
Term
drug abuse
Definition
problems that result from using drugs such as missing school or work
Term
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)
Definition
a treatment for alcoholism in which individuals admit they have a problem and seek help from a higher power (God) and others who have gone through the same problems
Term
D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education)
Definition
a program for children that is designed to reduce drug use by teaching the children about drugs and the problems they can cause
Term
Naltrexone
Definition
a drug that reduces the pleasure produced by psychoactive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine
Term
methadone
Definition
a drug that blocks the pleasure produced by heroin and elminates heroin withdrawl symptoms
Term
Antabuse
Definition
a drug that causes severe nausea if alcohol is consumed after the drug is taken, and therefore it is used to treat alcoholism
Term
Zyban
Definition
a drug that produces pleasure by stimulating the release of dopamine in the pleasure center, and therefore can be used as a subsitute for cigarettes
Term
meditation
Definition
a procedure that usually involves sitting quietly and possibly silently repeating a mantra. Some people believe it results in a higher state of consciousness
Term
mantra
Definition
a nonsense word or phrase that is repeated as part of meditation. The use of the mantra appears to block thoughts that might distract of disrupt the individual's relaxation
Term
Transcendental meditation (TM)
Definition
a popular form of meditation, the advocates of which believe results in a higher state of consciousness
Term
mental imagery
Definition
a technique in which individuals imagine performing physical movements, such as shooting a basketball. The notion is that the imagining will improve subsequent actual performace, but the evidence does not support that
Term
learning
Definition
a relatively permanent change in behavior that is due to experience
Term
conditioning
Definition
types of learning that appear to be controlled by environmental factors
Term
cognitive learning
Definition
types of learning that appear to occur independently of environmental factors
Term
classical conditioning
Definition
a type of conditioning in which a stimulus that does not elicit a response is consistently paired with a stimulus that can elicit a response such that later the stimulus can elicit the response
Term
Ivan Pavlov
Definition
a Russian physiologist who originally identified and studied classical conditioning
Term
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Definition
a stimulus that is able to elicit an unconditioned response; in Pavlos's reserach, the meat powder
Term
unconditioned response (UCR)
Definition
a response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus' in Pavlov's research, salivation
Term
conditioned stimulus (CS)
Definition
a stimulus which does not initially elicit a conditioned response but which after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus ia ble to elicit the conditioned response
Term
conditioned response (CR)
Definition
a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus after conditioning has occured. The conditioned response is similar to the unconditioned response
Term
John B. Watson
Definition
a psychologist who demonstrated with "Little Albert" that fears could be learned through classical conditioning
Term
Rosalie Rayner
Definition
a colleague of John B. Watson who participated in the research on the classical conditioning of fear in "Little Albert"
Term
Little Albert
Definition
an 11-month-old child for whom a white rat and a loud noise were paired. The result was that little Albert developed a classically conditioned fear of the rat
Term
phobias
Definition
irrational fears that are probably classically conditioned
Term
sexual fetishism
Definition
a disorder in which an individual gains sexual arousal from a nonhuman object, such as a shoe
Term
generalization
Definition
the process by which a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus can elicit the condition response
Term
discrimination
Definition
the process by which an individual learns which stimuli are associated with an unconditioned response and which stimuli are not
Term
higher-order conditioning
Definition
the process in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a conditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus takes on the ability to elicit the conditioned response
Term
extinction
Definition
the process of eliminating a classically conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus
Term
spontaneous recovery
Definition
the fact that a classically conditioned response that has been extinguised will reoccur again when the conditioned stimulus is presented some time later
Term
Edward L. Thorndike
Definition
a psychologist who identified the law of effect
Term
law of effect
Definition
the fact that a response that is followed be a reward is more likely to be repeated in the future. Provides the basis for operant conditioning
Term
operant conditioning
Definition
the process in which rewards (reinforements) are used to increase behaviors and punishments are used to decrease behaviors
Term
B.F. Skinner
Definition
a psychologist who systemtically studied and made popular operant conditioning
Term
Skinner box
Definition
a small chamber that contains a lever that can be pushed or a disk that can be pecked to make a response, usually to get a reinforcement
Term
token economy
Definition
an environment, usually a psychiatric ward, in which, when individuals behave well, they are given tokens that can later be exchanged for rewards (reinforcements)
Term
behaviorists
Definition
psychologists who believe that in studying behavior we should limit our attention to observable events, such as behaviors and their consequences, rather than unobservable events such as thinking
Term
reinforcement
Definition
something which follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be used again. Often called a reward
Term
positive reinforcement
Definition
something which when it follows a response increase the likelihood that the response will be used again
Term
negative reinforcement
Definition
something which when it is removed folloing a response increases the likelihood that the response will be used again
Term
punishment
Definition
something which follows a response and decreases the likelihood that the response will be used again
Term
primary reinforcer
Definition
something that serves as a reinforcement because it reduces a primary need such as hunger
Term
secondary reinforcer
Definition
something that serves as a reinforcement but which does not directly reduce a primar need (e.g. money)
Term
avoidance conditioning
Definition
the learning of an operant response to avoid receiving a punishment
Term
escape conditioning
Definition
the learning of an operant response to escape from a punishment
Term
shaping
Definition
conditioning a complex response by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired response
Term
generalization (of an operantly conditioned response)
Definition
the use of an operant response in situations that are similar to the one in which the response was conditioned
Term
discrimination (in operant conditioning)
Definition
learning in what situations an operant response should not be used because it will not result in a reinforcement
Term
extinction (of operant conditioning)
Definition
reducing the use of an operantly conditioned response by not reinforcing the response
Term
schedules of reinforcement
Definition
differences in the consistency with which reinforcements are given (fixed, variable, ratio, interval)
Term
fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement
Definition
on this schedule, a reinforcement is given following a specific number of responses (e.g. after every five responses)
Term
fixed interval schedule of reinforcement
Definition
on this schedule, a reinforcement is given after a specific interval of time has elapsed during which the individual is responding (e.g. getting a reinforcement on the same day each week)
Term
variable ratio schedule of reinforcement
Definition
on this schedule, reinforcements are given following different numbers of responses (e.g. after 5 responses, then 2 responses, and then after 8 responses)
Term
variable interval schedule of reinforcement
Definition
on this schedule, reinforcements are given following different intervals of time during which the individual is responding (e.g. after 1 hour, then after 2 days, then after 8 hours)
Term
latent learning
Definition
learning that ocurs without reinforcement but the response is used when its used leads to reinforcement
Term
place learning
Definition
learning how to get form one place to another by developing a cognitive map rather than learning a specific set of responses
Term
insight (learning)
Definition
the finding of a solution to a problem by thinking about it and then "putting the pieces together" usually in a "flash"
Term
observational learning
Definition
the learning of operant and emotional responses by simply watching others use the responses
Term
cell assembly
Definition
a group of cells (neurons) in the brain which when they fire together result in a though
Term
acetylcholine
Definition
a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in learning
Term
long-term potentiation
Definition
the process by which postsynaptic neurons become more sensitive and therefore more likely to respond to stimulation. This leads to the selective firing of posysynaptic neurons that is required for learning
Term
NMDA (N-methyl-D-asparate)
Definition
a substance that is released by the presynaptic neuron. When it stimulates receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, it leads to long-term potentiation of thaat neuron
Term
memory
Definition
the process by which we store and later retrieve information
Term
sensory memory
Definition
the first stage of memory; the stage in which incoming information is encoded and screened. It has a huge capacity but short duration
Term
encoding
Definition
the process of interpreting or attaching meaning to stimuli
Term
selective attention
Definition
focusing attention on what is important at the time
Term
short-term memory
Definition
the second stage of memory; the stage inw hich thinking is done and in which information is processed for storage. It has a small capacity and short duration
Term
magic number of short-term memory
Definition
the fact that we can hold seven items, give or take two, in your short-term memory
Term
chunking
Definition
the process of recoding a number of times as on a "chunk"
Term
parallel search
Definition
when looking for an item in the short-term memory, all items are examined simultaneously
Term
serial search
Definition
when looking for an item in the short-term memory, each item is considered separately in order
Term
active processing
Definition
when storing a memory, it is actively linked to as many other memories as possible, thus enhancing recall later
Term
passive processing
Definition
when storing a memory, it is not linked to other memories, thus reducing the likelihood that it will be recalled later
Term
deep processing
Definition
storing memories in terms of their meanings
Term
shallow processing
Definition
storing memories in terms of the superficial characteristics
Term
maintenance rehearsal
Definition
simply repeating an item to be recalled later; usually not effective
Term
elaborative rehearsal
Definition
building on a memory in the process of storage (a form of active and deep processing)
Term
mnemonic devices
Definition
strategies that are used to improve memory
Term
long-term memory
Definition
the third stage of memory; the stage in which all memories are stored. It has a huge capacity and long duration
Term
declarative memories
Definition
memories for facts and information
Term
procedural memories
Definition
memories for actions required to do things
Term
implicit memories
Definition
memories of which you are not aware but which can be brought back with clues
Term
semantic memories
Definition
memories for the meanings of words
Term
network model of memory
Definition
the notion that memories are stored in networks in the brain and that stimulating a network will lead to a memory
Term
spreading of activation
Definition
the fact that the activation of one memory will activate other related memories (the stream of consciousness)
Term
priming
Definition
the fact that activating a memory network increases the likelihood that it will be activated again in the future
Term
free recall
Definition
the type of recall in which information is retrieved without the aid of cues
Term
cued recall
Definition
the type of recall in which information retrieval is aided by cues
Term
recognition recall
Definition
the type of recall in which an individual recognizes information in an array of possibilities
Term
place dependent recall
Definition
the fact that if you learn material while in one particular place, you will be more likely to recall the material later if you are again in that place
Term
state dependent recall
Definition
the fact that if you learn material while in one particular physiological state, you will be more likely to recall the material later if you are again in that state
Term
forgetting
Definition
the failure of memory
Term
Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
Definition
an early psychologist who discovered that there is a sharp decline in memory in the first hour after learning
Term
decay
Definition
the notion that forgetting is due to a decay in the memory over time
Term
reminiscence
Definition
the fact that something that at one time could not be remembered is remembered later
Term
interference
Definition
the notion that forgetting occurs because other experiences interfere with the memories (disrupt the links to the memories)
Term
retroactive interference
Definition
the fact that learning of new material can interfere with the recall of earlier learned material
Term
proactive interference
Definition
the fact that previously learned material can interfere with the recall of recently learned material
Term
selective attention (and forgetting)
Definition
the fact that sometimes we are not able to recall material because originally we did not attend to it enough and therefore it was nto put into long-term memory
Term
selective recall
Definition
the fact that our orientation or mood influences what we recall
Term
schema
Definition
a term for the way we have encoded or described something when putting it into memory and which influences later recall
Term
repression
Definition
the notion that to reduce stress we automatically eliminate anxiety-provoking memories from consciousness and store them in the unconscious from which they cannot be recalled
Term
suppression
Definition
the process by which we voluntarily stop thinking about something to avoid stress, but we can recall the material if we wish (contrast with repression)
Term
Sigmund Freud
Definition
the early theorist who developed the notion of repression and the unconscious to explain the presence of symptoms for which a physiological cause could not be found
Term
recovered memories
Definition
memories that were supposedly repressed but later brought to consciousness (often associated with childhood sexual abuse)
Term
hippocampus
Definition
a structure in the brain that is crucial for processing memories for storage in the long-term memory
Term
amyglada
Definition
a structure in the brain that plays role in the processing of emotional memories for storage in the long-term memory
Term
cell assemblies
Definition
sets of neurons in which memories are stored; when the neurons fire the memory is generated
Term
consolidation (of the memory)
Definition
the strengthening of the connections among neurons that form memories (cell assemblies)
Term
concussion
Definition
a shaking of the brain which results in a loss of memories
Term
convulsion
Definition
a brief but intense firing of neurons that can resut in a loss of memories
Term
electrovonvulsive therapy (ECT)
Definition
the administration of an electrical shock to the brain to reduce depression (commonly called "shock therapy"). A side effect can be a loss of a memory
Term
acetylcholine
Definition
a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in a memory
Term
adrenaline (epinephrine)
Definition
adrenaline is a hormone that increases arousal and can aid in memory
Term
glucose
Definition
the energy source for the neuron in the brain (commonly called "blood sugar"); low levels can reduce memories
Term
amnesia
Definition
the sudden loss of memories from a specific period of time
Term
retrograde amnesia
Definition
the loss of delarative memories from the period before the damage to the brain occured
Term
anterograde amnesia
Definition
the inability to form new declarative memories after damage to the brain has occured
Term
Korsakoff's syndrome
Definition
deterioration of the hippocampus and amygdala due to a deficiency of viatmin B1 which results in anterograde amnesia
Term
infantile amnesia
Definition
the inability to recall declarative memories from beofre about the age of 3 or 4
Term
dementia
Definition
a progressive memory loss due to deterioration of the brain (sometimes called "senility")
Term
stroke
Definition
death of neurons due to insufficient blood supply (commonly called a cerebral infarct); can result in dementia
Term
cerebral infarct
Definition
death of neurons due to insufficient blood supply (commonly called a stroke); can result in dementia
Term
Alzheimer's disease
Definition
a serious problem with memory due to a deteriration of the brain (primarily the hippocampus) characterized by tangled axons, plaques at the synapes and holes in the bodies of the neurons
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