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| the term used by some researchers (and considered to be inclusive by others) to describe the differences between male and female research participants |
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| the term used by some researchers to describe the traits and behaviors that are regarded by the culture as appropriate to men and women |
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| the view that gender differences are biologically determined |
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| women and men assigned different societal functions because of different reproductive functioning and physical strength. |
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| a group of critics of science who argue that reality is constructed through perception and is inevitably subject to bias. Included in this bias is all scientific observation, thus excluding science from its claim of objectivity. |
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| the view that few important differences exist between the sexes |
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| the view that many important differences exist between the sexes |
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| a person whose beliefs, values and attitudes reflect a high regard for women as human beings and values women for attributes that exist in real women rather than based on stereotypes. |
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| man centered rather than people centered, operated by stereotypes |
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| constructionists vs. Empiricists |
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| constructionists believe that there is no such thing as fact and that the world is constructed by bias, whereas the empiricists believe that it is possible to prevent personal feelings and biases by direct observation. |
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| collecting information through direct observation |
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| a group of research methods, including naturalistic observation, surveys, and Correlational studies, that yield descriptions of the observed phenomena |
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| a definition of a variable in terms of operations used to obtain information on the variable, rather than in terms of concepts underlying that variable. |
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| no researcher intervention, also called descriptive experiments |
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| example of a descriptive method of research in which a questionnaire is constructed |
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| a descriptive research method that requires researchers to measure two factors known to occur within a group of people to determine the degree of relationship between the two factors. |
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| correlation and causation |
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| – a Correlational study is a descriptive research method that does not define causality but shows the relationship between variables on a -1 – 1 scale. A -1 indicates an inverse relationship, a 0 indicates no relationship. |
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| a type of study in which a researcher manipulates an independent variable and observes the changes in a dependent variable and observes the changes in a dependent variable; only through experiments can researchers learn about cause-and-effect relationships. |
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| the factor in an experiment that the experimenter manipulates to create a difference that did not previously exist in the participants. |
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| the factor in an experiment that the experimenter measures to determine whether the manipulation of the independent variable has an effect |
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| a type of non-experimental research design that involves the comparison of subjects, who are placed in contrast groups, on the bases of some pre-existing characteristic of the subjects. |
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| a characteristic of the subjects, such as gender, that allows researchers to form contrast groups in quasi-experimental studies. |
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| a type of non-experimental research design that involves the comparison of subjects, who are placed in contrast groups, on the basis of some pre-existing characteristic of the subjects. |
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| in many early studies of science including psychology, studies did not include women, which resulted in biased results. Gender bias in research affects the content of hypothesis, the interpretation of results, and the judgments about practical significance. |
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| a result obtained by analysis with statistical tests and found unlikely to have been obtained on the basis of chance alone. |
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| an important result with practical implications; different from statistical significance. |
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| research that focuses on understanding complexity and context rather than distilling situations to sets of numbers. |
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| research that uses numerical data and statistical analysis. |
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| the beliefs about the characteristics associated with, and the activities appropriate to, men or women. |
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| stereotypes are multi-faceted; when one stereotype is confirmed in a particular person, we unconsciously assume all other facets apply. |
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| origins of contemporary stereotypes |
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| scientists tried to prove scientifically that men were more intelligent than women, believed that women had smaller brains. |
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| Terman & Miles' research on sex differences in intelligence |
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| concluded that there were no sex differences. Therman said the real sex differences are in personality, thus began the effort to measure femininity and masculinity as sets of personality traits. |
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| assumed masculinity and femininity were opposites, enduring, rooted in brain and biology, distinguished males from females. Gay males were used in place of women to develop the femininity pole of the MMPI scale |
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| Anne Constantiople's challenge |
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| challenged all of the assumptions of MMPI. The definition of M-F shifted; still personality traits but not opposites, not enduring, not rooting in biology, also, M & F reflect how we think about women and men. |
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| Sandra Bem's Sex Role Inventory |
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| developed based on what people thought ideal M & F. The ideal women was concerned for other, the ideal man was consumed with getting a job done. |
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| a blending of masculinity and femininity, in which the desirable characteristics associated with both men and women are combined within individuals. |
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| sex-typed personality traits |
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| male trait s without female or vice vera |
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| David Bakan: Agency and Communion |
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| According to David Bakan, Agency is generally associated with men and is the part of the human being that wants to survive and thrive, the tendency for humans to be leaders, productive, win, be autonomous, etc. Communion is generally associated with women and is the tendency in humans to be cooperative, loving, self-sacrificing, part of a group, etc. |
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| Spence & Helmreich’s Personal Attributes Questionnaire |
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| Masculinity and femininity scales developed to measure agency and communion, they expected a positive correlation relationship. |
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| 4 fold classification scheme |
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| Classifications of the results from the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. Psychologically androgynous for high on both masculinity and femininity; masculine sex-typed for high masculine, low feminine; feminine sex-typed for high feminine, low masculine; Psychologically undifferentiated, low on both masculine and feminine traits. |
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| Bem's research - advantages of androgyny |
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Definition
| people with androgynous traits were just as likely to have high-esteem as a person with a masculine sex-typed personality. |
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| Psychological androgyny and mental health |
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| androgynous people are the most behaviorally flexible and have the best psychological adjustment as long as the measure of M & F include undesirable aspects of sex-typed traits. |
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| unmitigated agency or unmitigated communion |
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| associated with poorer adjustment |
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| sex-typing and self-concept |
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| most men score high on masculinity scale and most females score high on femininity scales. |
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| stereotypes exaggerate actual sex differences |
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| Carol Martin’s study of college students’ self-concepts |
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| she found sex differences on 5 sex-typed traits |
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| stereotypes reflect behavior associated with different roles held by women and men. |
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| Stereotypes and subject variables: race, age, sex, etc |
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| sex, race, ethnicity change the content of stereotypes. Stereotypes have contradictions and can prescribe unhealthy behaviors, creating gender role strain. |
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| when roles done fit us well, the stereotype of our gender and our actual traits conflict. |
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| Biernat's contrast effect |
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| Standards against which individual group members are judged; lower expectation make people who actually overcome that expectation are evaluated better than someone who performed the same but was expected to do so. |
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| women & men in separate spheres |
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| equal opportunities and responsibilities within and outside the home |
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| women may pursue careers but should still retain primary responsibility for domestic domain. |
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| Attitudes towards women scale |
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| first measure of gender ideology, a derivative of the PAQ, showed that women have less traditional ideologies as men. |
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| Spence & Helmreich’s cross-cultural research |
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| attitude toward women scale was given to 46 countries where women consistently had less traditional ideologies than men. Over time there were also less traditional ideologies in both sexes |
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| negative evaluation of an entire group |
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| behavior that holds people or group apart and results in different treatment |
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| saying mean things about women, i.e., women are stupid, women want to control men, etc. |
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| saying seemingly nice things about women that actually demeans them; i.e. women need to be protected, women should be put on a pedestal, etc. |
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| Research by Glick & Fiske – Ambivalent Sexism Scale |
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| was given to 15,000 people in 19 countries. Results showed that both kinds of sexism were prevalent everywhere. Showed that gender stereotypes are prescriptive. |
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| research, Bergen & Williamson, change in gender stereotypes |
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Definition
| found that for most college students, stereotypes have not changed much. |
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| How children learn gender stereotypes |
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Definition
| children figure out that their gender is not going to change and then want to express the traits of their gender. When cultures make big distinction, children make bigger distinctions. |
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| the knowledge that gender is a permanent characteristic and will not change with superficial alterations. |
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| Freud's concept of unconscious motivation |
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| in Freudian theory, a region of the mind functioning beyond a person’s conscious awareness |
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| in Freudian theory, the drives or impulses that underlie action, thought, and other aspects of personality functioning, which include the life, or sexual, instinct and the death, or aggressive, instinct. |
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| a defense mechanism that allows us to forget about anxiety provoking things |
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| Freud's stage of development |
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| The stages of development are associated with different zones of pleasure-seeking. Stage one is the oral stage which is ended during weaning. Second is the anal stage which is ended with toilet training. The third stage is the phallic stage where an infant receives pleasure from self-stimulation which is ended by the socialization of public behavior. |
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| Freud's concept of penis envy |
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| Freud believed that all girls must feel inferior to boys because they are ‘missing’ a penis. |
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| in Freudian theory, the situation that exists during the phallic stage in which the boy feels unconscious hostility toward the father and unconscious sexual feelings for the mother. The boy eventually suppresses his hostile feelings toward his father and sexual longings for his mother for fear of castration. |
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| in Freudian theory, the girl is jealous of her mother, anger is directed inward and towards mom for shared inferiority. Penis envy is subliminatd into the desire to have a baby. The girl will repress all sexual impulses and her belief in mother’s inferiority and yearnings for father. |
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| in Freudian theory, the unconscious fear that the father will castrate his son as a punishment for the son’s sexual longings for his mother. |
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| identification and sublimation |
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Definition
| when the child is in the Oedipal stage, the child will sublimate yearning for the opposite-sex parent through identification with the same-sex parent. The child will wants a partner like the opposite-sex person and will imitate the same-sex partner in order to get it |
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| in the Oedipus complex, the child sees a girl and does not want dad to take away his penis for punishment of his fantasies toward mother and hatred toward father. |
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| neurosis results from incomplete resolution of oedipal/electra complexes |
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| Developmental fixation & masculinity complex |
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Definition
| unsuccessfully sublimated penis envy and a rejection of female role |
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| Horney’s concept of penis envy |
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| Karen Horney believed that penis envy is really a woman’s envy of a man’s privileged social status |
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| Karen Horney believed that men too were jealous of women in the fact that women are capable of giving birth |
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| Horney’s concept of masculinity complex |
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| believed that the masculinity complex is a reaction to a patriarchal social environment |
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| Freud’s abandonment of childhood seduction theory |
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| Freud believed that many women made up stories about being sexually abused because the men they accused with of prominent stature and he believed would never do such a thing. He believed the events were imagined and reflected women’s wish fulfillment fantasies. |
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| Chodorow – gendered parenting & gender identification |
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Definition
| gendered parenting leads to gendered psychological development. Gendered parenting has psychological consequences, they become self-sustaining. |
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| Developmental shift to masculine identification for boys |
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Definition
| Boys shift to father for gender identity once gender constancy is established. Fathers are less intimate with young children therefore, male gender identity established in a non-intimate relationship. This is more psychologically challenging and results in insecurity of gender identity especially within intimate relationships. |
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