Term
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Definition
| The detection of physical energy emitted or reflected by physical objects; it occurs when energy in the external environent or the body stimulates receptors in the sense organs. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information. |
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Term
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Definition
| Specialized cells that convert physical energy in the environment or the body to electrical energy that can be transmitted as nerve impulses to the brain. |
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Term
Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies
(p 191) |
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Definition
| The principle that different sensory modalities exist because signals received by the sense organs stimulate different nerve pathways leading to different areas of the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| A condition in which stimulation of one sense also evokes another. |
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Term
Absolute Threshold
(p 192) |
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Definition
| The smalles quantity of physical energy that can be reliably detected by an observer. |
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Term
Difference Threshold
(p 193) |
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Definition
| The smallest difference in stimulation that can be reliably detected by an observer when two stimuli are compared; also called Just Noticable Difference. |
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Term
Signal-Detection Theory
(p 194) |
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Definition
| A psychophysical theory that divides the detection of a seonsory signal into a sensory process and a decision process. |
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Term
Sensory Adaptation
(p 194) |
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Definition
| The reduction or disappearance of sensory responsiveness when stimulation is unchanging or repetitious. |
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Term
Sensory Deprivation
(p 195) |
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Definition
| The absence of normal levels of sensory stimulation. |
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Term
Selective Attention
(p 196) |
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Definition
| The focusing of attention on selected aspects of the environment and the blocking out of others. |
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Term
Inattentional Blindness
(p 196) |
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Definition
| Failure to consciously perceive something you are looking at because you are not attending to it. |
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Term
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Definition
| The dimension of visual experience specified by color names and relatedto the wavelength of light. |
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Term
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Definition
| Lightness or luminance; the dimension of visual experience related to the amount (intensity) of light emitted from reflected by an object. |
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Term
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Definition
| Vividness or purity of color; the dimension of visual experience related to the complexity of light waves. |
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Term
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Definition
| Neural tissue lining the back of the eyeball's interior, which contains the receptors for vision. |
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Term
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Definition
| Visual receptors that respond to dim light. |
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Term
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Definition
| Visual receptors involved in color vision. |
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Term
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Definition
| A process by which visual receptors becoming maximally sensiive to dim light. |
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Term
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Definition
| Neurons in the retina of the eye, which gather information from receptor cells (by way of intermediate bipolar cells); their axons make up the optic nerve. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cells in the visual cortex that are sensitive to specific features of the environment. |
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Term
Trichromatic Theory
(p 201) |
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Definition
| A theory of color perception that proposes three mechanisms in the visual system, each sensitive to a certain range of wavelengths; their interaction is assumed to produce all the difference experiences ofhuse. |
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Term
Opponent-Process Theory
(p 201) |
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Definition
| A theory of color perception that assumes that the visual system treats pairs of colors as opposing or antagonistic. |
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Term
Gestalt Principles
(p 203) |
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Definition
| Principles that describethe brain's organization of sensory information into meaningful units and patterns. |
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Term
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Definition
| Visual Cues to depth or distance requiring two eyes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Visual Cues to depth or distance requiring two eyes. |
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Term
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Definition
| The turning inward of the eyes, which occurs when they focus on a nearby object. |
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Term
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Definition
| The slight difference in lateral separation between two objects as seen by the left eye and the right eye. |
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Term
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Definition
| Visual cues to depth or distance, which can be used by one eye alone. |
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Term
Perceptural Constancy
(p 205) |
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Definition
| The accurate perception of objects as stable or unchanged despite changes in the sensory patterns they produce. |
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Term
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Definition
| The dimension of auditory experience related to the intensity of a pressure wave. |
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Term
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Definition
| The dimension of auditory experience related to the frequency of a pressure wave. |
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Term
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Definition
| The distinguishing quality of a sound; the dimension of auditory experience related to the complexity of the pressure wave. |
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Term
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Definition
| A structure in the cochlea containing hair cells that serve as the receptors for hearing. |
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Term
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Definition
| A snail-shaped, fluid-filled organ in the inner ear, containing the Organ of Corti, where the receptors for hearing are located. |
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Term
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Definition
| Knoblike elevations on the tongue, containing the taste buds. |
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Term
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Definition
| Nests of taste-receptor cells. |
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Term
Gate-Control Theory
(p 218) |
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Definition
| The theory that the experience of pain depends in part on whether pain impulses get past a neurological "gate" in the spinal cord and thus reach the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| The experience of pain in a missing limb or other body part. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The sense of a body position and movement of body parts. |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
Semicircular Canals
(p 221) |
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Definition
| Sense organs in the inner ear tha contribute to equilibrium by responding to rotation of the head. |
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Term
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Definition
| A habitual way of perceiving, based on expectations. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ametod used to measure unconscious cognitive processes, in which a person is exposed to information and is later tested to see whether the informationaffects behavior or performance on another task or in another situation. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavioral potential) due to experience. |
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Term
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Definition
| An apperoach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| A basic kind of learning that involves associations between environmental stimuli and the organism's responses. |
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Term
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
(p 237) |
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Definition
| The classical conditioning term for a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning. |
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Term
Unconditioned Response (UR)
(p 237) |
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Definition
| The classical conditioning term for a reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning. |
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Term
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
(p 237) |
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Definition
| The clasical conditioning term for an initially neutral stimulus that comes to eicit a conditioned stimulus; it occurs after the conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus. |
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Term
Conditioned Response (CR)
(p 237) |
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Definition
| The classical conditioning ter for a response that is elicited by a conditioned stiulus; it occurs after the conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimuluse. |
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Term
Classical Conditioning
(p 237) |
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Definition
| The process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicitys a similar or related response. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; in classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus. |
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Term
Spontaneous Recovery
(p 238) |
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Definition
| The reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction. |
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Term
Higher-Order Conditioning
(p 238) |
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Definition
| In classical conditioning, a procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus. |
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Term
Stimulus Generalization
(p 239) |
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Definition
| After conditioning, the tendency to respond to a stimulus that resembles one involved in the original conditioning; in classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus that resembles the CS elicits the CR. |
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Term
Stimulus Discrimination
(p 239) |
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Definition
| The tendency to repond differently to two or more similar stimuli; in classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus similar to the CS fails to evoke the CR. |
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Term
Operant Conditioning
(p 247) |
|
Definition
| The process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it follows. |
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Term
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Definition
| The proces by which a stimulus or event weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows. |
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Term
Primary Reinforcer
(p 249) |
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Definition
| A stimulus that isinherently reinforcing, typically satisfying a physiological need; an example is food. |
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Term
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Definition
| A stimulus that is inherently punishing; an example is electric shock. |
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Term
Secondary Reinforcer
(p 249) |
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Definition
| A stimulus that has acquired reinforcing properties through association with other reinforcers. |
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Term
Secondary Punisher
(p 249) |
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Definition
| A stimulus that has acquired punishing properties through association with other punishers. |
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Term
Positive Reinforcement
(p 249) |
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Definition
| A reinforcement procedure inwhich a response is followed by the presentation of, or increase in intensity of, a reinforcing stimulus; as a result, the response becomes stronger or more likely to occur. |
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Term
Negative Reinforcement
(p 249) |
|
Definition
| A reinforcement procedurein which a response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; as a result, the response becomes stronger or more likely to occur. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; in operant conditioning, it occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer. |
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Term
Stimuls Generalization
(p 252) |
|
Definition
| In operant conditioning, the tendency for a response that has been reinforced (or punished) in the presence of one stimulus to occur (or be suppressed) in the presence of other similar stimuli. |
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Term
Stimulus Discrimination
(p 252) |
|
Definition
| In operant conditioning, the tendency of a response to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not in the presence of other, similar stimuli that differ from it in some dimension. |
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Term
Discriminative Stimulus
(p 252) |
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Definition
| A stimulus that signals when a particular response is likely to be followed by a certain type of consequence. |
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Term
Continuous Reinforcement
(p 252) |
|
Definition
| A reinforcement schedule in which a particular response is always reinforced. |
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Term
Intermittent (Partial) Scedule of Reinforcement
(p 252) |
|
Definition
| A reinforcement schedule in which a particular response is sometimes but not always reinforced. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An operant-conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced. |
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Term
Successive Approximations
(p 254) |
|
Definition
| In the operant-conditioning procedure of shaping, behaviorsthat are ordered in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to the desired response. |
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Term
|
Definition
| During operant learning, the tendency for an organism to revert to instinctive behavior. |
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Term
Behavior Modification
(p 257) |
|
Definition
| The application of operant conditioning techniques to teach new responses or to reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior. |
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Term
Intrinsic Reinforcers
(p 261) |
|
Definition
| Reinforcers thatare inherently related to the activity being reinforced. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without obvious reinforcement. |
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Term
Social-Cognitive Theories
(p 266) |
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Definition
| Theoriesthat emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained through observation and imitation of others, positive consequences, and cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs. |
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Term
Observational Learning
(p 266) |
|
Definition
| A process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behavior of another (a model) rather than through direct experience. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Rules that regulate social life, including explicit laws and implicit cultural conventions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A given social position that is governed by a set of norms for proper behavior. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A program of shared rules that govern the behavior of people in a community or society, and a set of values, beliefs, and customs shared by members of that community. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A gradual prcess in which individuals escalate their commitment to a course of action to justify their investment of time, money, or effort. |
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Term
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Definition
| An area in social psychology concerned with social influences on thought, memory, perception, and beliefs. |
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Term
Attribution Theory
(p 284) |
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Definition
| The theory that people are motivated to explain their own and other people's behavior by attributing causes of that behavior to a situation or a disposition. |
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Term
Fundamental Attribution Error
(p 285) |
|
Definition
| The tendency, in explaining other people's behavior, to overstimate personality factors and underestimate the influence of the situation. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency, in explaining one's own behavior, to take credit for one's good actions and rationalize one's mistakes. |
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Term
Just-World Hypothesis
(p 285) |
|
Definition
| The notion that many people need to believe that the world is fair and that justice is served, that bad people are punished and good people rewarded. |
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Term
Cognitive Dissonance
(p 287) |
|
Definition
| A state of tension that occurs when a person simultaneiously holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent or when a person's belief is incongruent with his or her behavior. |
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Term
Familiarity Effect
(p 289) |
|
Definition
| The tendency of people to feel more positive toward a person, item, product, or other stimulus the more familiar they are with it. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency of people to believe that a statement is true or valid simply because it has been repeated many times. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency for all members of a group to think alike for the sake of harmony and to suppress disagreement. |
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Term
Diffusion of Responsibility
(p 295) |
|
Definition
| In groups, the tendency of members to avoid taking action because they assume that others will. |
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Term
|
Definition
| In groups or crowds, the loss of awareness of one's own individuality. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The part of a person's self-concept that is based on his or her identification with a nation, religious or polotical group, occupation, or other social affiliation. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A person's identification with a racial or ethnic group. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The process by which members of minority groups come to identify with and feel part of the mainstream culture. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The belief that one's own ethnic group, nation, or religion is superior to all others. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A summary impression of a group, in which a person believes that all members of the group share a common trait or traits (positive, negative, or neutral) |
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Term
|
Definition
| A strong, unreasonable dislike or hatred of a group, based on a negative stereotype. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A mental category that groups objects, relations, activities, abstractions, or qualities having common properties. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Concepts that have a moderate number of instances and that are easier to acquire than those having few or many instances. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An especially representative example of a concept. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A unit of meaning that is made of concepts and expresses a single idea. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A mental representation that mirrors or resembles the thing it represents; mental images occur in many and perhaps all sensory modalities. |
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Term
Subconscious Processes
(p 324) |
|
Definition
| Mental processes occuring outside of conscious awareness but accessible to consciousness when necessary. |
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Term
Nonconscious Processes
(p 324) |
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Definition
| Mental processes occurring outside of and not available to conscious awareness. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Learning that occurs when you acquire knowledge about something without being aware of how you did so and withougt being able to state exactly what it is you have learned. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The drawing of conclusions or inferences from observations, facts, or assumptions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A problem-solving strategy guaranteed to produce a solution even if the user does not know how it works. |
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Term
Deductive Reasoning
(p 327) |
|
Definition
| A form of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from certain premises; if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. |
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Term
Inductive Reasoning
(p 328) |
|
Definition
| A form of reasoning in which the premises provide support for a conclusion but it is still possible for the conclusion to be false. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A rule of thumb that suggest a course of action or guides problem solving but does not guarantee an optimal solution. |
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Term
Dialectical Reasoning
(p 329) |
|
Definition
| A process in which opposing facts or ideas are weighed and compared, with a view to determining the best solution or resolving differences. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency to consult one's emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectivly. |
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Term
Availability Heuristic
(p 333) |
|
Definition
| The tendency to judge the probability of a type of event by how east it is to think of examples or instances. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency to overestimate one's ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is known; the "I knew it all along" phenomenon. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms one's own beliefs. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A tendency to solve problems using procedures that worked before on similar problems. |
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Term
Cognitive Dissonance
(p 338) |
|
Definition
| A state of tension that occurs when a person holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent, or when a person's belief is incongruent with his or her behavior. |
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Term
Postdecision Dissonance
(p 339) |
|
Definition
| In the theory of cognitive dissonance, tension that occurs when you believe you may have made a bad decision. |
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Term
Justification of Effort
(p 339) |
|
Definition
| The tendency of individuals to increase their liking for something that they have worked hard or suffered to attain; a common form of dissonance reduction. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An inferred characteristicof an individual, usually defined as the ability to profit from experience, acquire knowledge, think abstractly, act purposefully, or adapt to changes in the environment. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A statistical method for analyzing the intercorrelations among various measures or test scores; clusters of measures or scores that are highly correlated are assumed to measure the same underlying trait, ability, or aptitude (factor). |
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Term
|
Definition
| A general intellectual ability assumed by many theorists to underlie specific mental abilities and talents. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The measurement of mental abilities, traits, and processes. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Ameasure of mental development express in terms of the average mental ability at a given age. |
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Term
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
(p 342) |
|
Definition
| A measure of intelligence originally computed by dividing a person's mental age by his or her chronological age and multiplying by 100; it is now derived from norms provided for standardized intelligence tests. |
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Term
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
(p 346) |
|
Definition
| A theory of intelligence that emphasizes information-processing strategies, the ability to creatively transfer skills to new situations, and the practical application of intelligence. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The knowledge or awareness of one's own cognitive processes. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Strategies for success that are not explicitly taught but that instead must be inferred. |
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Term
Emotional Intelligence
(p 348) |
|
Definition
| The ability to indentify your own and other people's emotions accurately, express your emotions clearly, and regulate emotions in yourself and others. |
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Term
Cognitive Ethology
(p 354) |
|
Definition
| The study of cognitive processes in nonhuman animals. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A system of beliefs about the way one's own mind and the minds of others work, and of how individuals are affected by their beliefs and feelings. |
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