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Definition
| the way in which strangers develop impressions of each other |
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| an active method of influence that attempts to guide people toward the adoption of an attitude, idea, or behavior by rational or emotive means. |
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| the theory that we tend to give a causal explanation for someon's behavior often by crediting either the person's disposition or the situation. |
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| a belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events |
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| Compliance is the tendency to agree to do what is requested especially if there are certain factors present: a feeling that there is give and take, believability, likeability, limited supply, positive feedback |
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Definition
| occurs when you change your opinions, judgments, or actions because someone in a position of authority told you to; you may not agree with this change |
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Definition
| the theory that we tend to give a causal explanation for someon's behavior, often by credititing either the situation or the person's disposition |
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Definition
| the scietific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another |
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| fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| the tendency for observers to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition |
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| foot in the door phenomenon |
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Definition
| the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request |
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| cognitive dissonance theory |
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Definition
| the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when 2 of our thoughts are inconsistent |
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Definition
| adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard |
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| normative social influence |
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Definition
| influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval |
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| informational social influence |
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Definition
| influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality |
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Definition
| improved performance of tasks in the presence of others when preforming a well-learned task |
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Definition
| the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts |
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| the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occuring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity |
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Definition
| the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives |
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Definition
| the enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group |
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| occurs when one person's belief about others leads one to act in ways that induce the others to appear to confirm the belief |
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| an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members |
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| a generalized (sometimes accurate) belief abut a group of people |
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| "us" people with common identities |
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| "them" people who seem different |
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| the tendency to favor one's own group |
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| the theory that prejudice provides an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame |
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Definition
| "what goes around comes around" people get what they deserve and deserve what they get |
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| any physical/verbal behavior intended to hurt/destory |
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| frustration-aggression principle |
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Definition
| the principle that frustation - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can generate aggression |
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Definition
| a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas |
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Definition
| a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior |
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Definition
| the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increase liking of them |
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Definition
| unselfish regard for the welfare of others |
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Definition
| the tendency ffor any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present |
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Definition
| the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs |
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Definition
| the science of behavior and mental processes |
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Definition
| the long-standing controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors |
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Definition
| the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduciton and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations |
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Definition
| how the body and brain create emotions, memories, and sensory experiences |
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Definition
| how nature selects traits that promote the perpetuation of one's genes |
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Definition
| how much our genes, and our environment, influence our individual differences |
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Definition
| how behavior springs from unconcious drives and conflicts |
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Definition
| how we learn observable responses |
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Definition
| how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information |
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| how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures |
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| pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base |
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| scientific study that aims to solve practical problems |
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| a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders |
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Definition
| a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy |
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Definition
| the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (i-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) |
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Definition
| thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions |
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Definition
| an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations |
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Definition
| a testable prediction, often implied by a theory |
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Definition
| a statement of the procedures used to define reseach variables |
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Definition
| repeating the essence of a reserach study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding gneralizes to other participants and circumstances |
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Definition
| an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles |
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Definition
| a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them |
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Definition
| the tendency to overestimate the extene to which others share our beliefs and behaviors |
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Definition
| all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study |
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Definition
| a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion |
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Definition
| observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation |
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Definition
| a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other |
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Definition
| a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the 2 variables |
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Definition
| a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process |
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Definition
| "i shall please" an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent |
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Definition
| an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are blind about whther the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo |
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Definition
| any effect on behavior caused by a placebo |
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Definition
| the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable |
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Definition
| the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment |
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Definition
| assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance |
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Definition
| the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whoses effect is being studied |
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Definition
| the experimental factor that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable |
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Definition
| the most frequently occuring score |
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Definition
| the average (add scores, divide by number of scores) |
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Definition
| the middle score in a distribution |
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| the difference betweenm the highest and lowest scores |
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| a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score |
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Definition
| a statistical criterion for rejecting the assumption of no differences in a particular study |
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Definition
| the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next |
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Definition
| a relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience |
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Definition
| learning that certain events occur together |
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Definition
| the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2) |
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Definition
| a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. a neutral stimulus that signals a UCS begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the US |
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Term
| unconditioned response (UCR) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS, suce as salivation when food is in the mouth |
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Term
| unconditioned stimulus (UCS) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response |
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Term
| conditioned response (CR) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) |
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| conditioned stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an UCS comes to trigger a CS |
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Definition
| the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with a US so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a CR, in operante conditioning, the strenghening of a reinforced response |
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Definition
| the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when a UCS does not follow a CS; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced |
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Definition
| the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguised CR |
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Definition
| the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus |
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Definition
| a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if follow by punishment |
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Definition
| behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning |
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Definition
| behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences |
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Definition
| thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequnces become less likely |
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Term
| operant chamber ("Skinner Box") |
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Definition
| a chamber containing a bar of key that an animal can manipulate or obtain a food of water reinforcer |
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Definition
| an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal |
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Definition
| in operant conitioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows |
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Definition
| an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need |
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Definition
| a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer |
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Definition
| reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs |
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Definition
| reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction thaan does countinous reinforcement |
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Term
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Definition
| in operant conditoning a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses |
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Definition
| in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a resonse after an unpredictable number of responses |
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Term
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Definition
| in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed |
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Term
| variable-interval schedule |
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Definition
| in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals |
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Definition
| an event that decreases the behavior that it follows |
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Definition
| a mental representation of the layout of one's environment |
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Definition
| learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it |
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Definition
| the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. the person may now see the reward, rather that intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task |
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Definition
| learning by observing others |
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Definition
| the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior |
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Definition
| positive, constructive, helpful behavior. the opposite of antisocial behavior |
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Definition
| the body's speedy, electrochemical communication system, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems |
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| central nervous system (CNS) |
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Definition
| the brain and spinal cord |
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| peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
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Definition
| the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body |
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Definition
| the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles |
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Definition
| the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the gland and the muscles of the internal organs (ex: heart) |
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| sympathetic nervous system |
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Definition
| the division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations |
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| parasympathetic nervous system |
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Definition
| the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy |
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Definition
| tissue destruction; a naturally of experimentally causes destruction of brain tissue |
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Term
| electroencephalogram (EEG) |
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Definition
| an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface; measured by electrodes |
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Term
| CT (computed tomography) scan |
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Definition
| a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body |
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| PET (positron emission tomography) |
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Definition
| a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task |
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| MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) |
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Definition
| a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue |
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Definition
| the oldest part and central core of the brain; starts where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for the automatic survival functions |
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Definition
| the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing |
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Definition
| a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal |
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Definition
| the brain's sensory switchboard; on top of the brainstem; directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum/medulla |
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Definition
| the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance |
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Definition
| doughnut-shaped; border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions (fear, aggression) and drives (food, sex); includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus |
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Definition
| two almost-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and linked to emotion (aggression) |
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Definition
| below the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp), governs the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion |
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Definition
| the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center |
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Definition
| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; speaking, muscle movements, making plans and judgments |
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Definition
| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex |
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Definition
| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory info primarily from the opposite ear |
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Definition
| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual info from the opposite visual field |
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Definition
| an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements |
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Definition
| the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations |
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Definition
| impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's or Wernicke's area |
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Definition
| an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech |
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Definition
| a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe |
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Definition
| the brain's capacity for modification |
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Definition
| the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them |
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Definition
| a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers b/t them |
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Definition
| the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream |
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Definition
| chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another |
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Definition
| a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys, help to arouse the body in times of stress |
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Definition
| most influential gland; influence of the hypothalamus, regulates growth, controls other endocrine glands |
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Definition
| the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information |
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Definition
| a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event |
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Definition
| the processing of information into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning |
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| the retention of encoded information over time |
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