semanticity

example: bee dancing at low level of semanticity. It uses symbols to transmit meaningful messages

the extent to which a language can use symbols to transmit meaningful messages

Onomatopeia

Generativity

The ability to combine words or symbols of a language using rules of compostition and syntax to communicate an almost infinite variety of ideas using a relatively small vocabulary

example:musical notes

Displacement

refers to the ability to use language to convey messages that are not tied to the immediate context (time and place) but instead communicate information about events in the past or future, or at some other location

an example is ASL American Sign Language that uses movements to express and convey complelx meaning

another example: reminiscing about last year's vaction

Psycholonguistics

A branch of sognitive psychology devoted to the study of the acquisition, comprehension, and production of language

Phonology

The rules that govern the patterns of sounds that are used in a language- which sounds are used , and how they're combined

Phonemes

(letters that are different in a word that represent the sound)

example: bat has 3 phonemes, happy has 4 phonemes, sounding has 6 phonemes

The basic distinctive speech sounds in a language that distinguishes one word (ex; rice from lice)

Morphemes

The smallest unitis of meaning withing a langauge

-Two types of morphemes:

- Free morphemes are meaningful only when combines with other morphemes to form words

- Bound morphemes are meaningful only when combined with other morphemes to form words

example: word "engagement" contains the free morpheme "engage" as well as the bound morpheme "ment"

Semantics

Refers to the meaning of words and the rules that govern those meanings. Semantic rules can be  crucial for comprehension.

example: if you read "Once Tom go his bow, the violinits could begin" you know that "bow" means the item used to play the intrument and not the weapon that shoots an arrow

Syntax OR Syntactical Rules

Grammatical rules of a particular language for combining words to form phrases, clauses, and sentences

Pragmatics

The soical rules of language that allow people to use langugae appropriately for  different purposes and in different situations

Prosody

Articulators

Mouth structures that make speech sounds (jaw, toungue, lips and soft palate)

Monodegreen

a word or phrase that results from mishearing something said or sung

Coarticulation

Speech sounds for words are not produced in a discrete sequence. Insteadd, the articulators are effectively shaping multiple sounds at any moment in time, so that different instances of a particular phoneme (ex. "b") are acoustically different, depending on the sounds preceding and following them

Categorical Perception

The tendency of perceivers to disregard physical differences between stimuli and perceive them as the same, such that a continuous change in a physical attribute is perceived not as continuous, but as a discrete change at a category boundary

- categorical perception applies to both langauge (sounds_ and vision (objects)

Infant-Directed Talk (IDT)

Exaggerated expressive verbal and nonverbal communication used with infants

Baby cooing

Interactin and increased sound production

as they continue this behaviour and the people around them begin to interact with them as they do this, babies will begin to produce more and more sounds

babbling

beomcing a better babbler

Overextend

Generalize known words to a wider variety of contexts than is appropriate for those words

Underextend

Vocabulary Spurt

Period of strong langauge growth in children in which they are able to learn and use a large number of words

telegraphic speech

speech that sounds very much like a telegram, with only essential words, has words arranged in an order that makes sense and contnains almost all nouns and verbs string together in pairs

Nativism

Interactionist

Joint Attention

the ability to share attention with another towards the same object or event 

Intersubjectivity

convergent evolution

subsongs

unsturctured , often  rambling vocalitzation at low intensity heard manily in young birds

aphasia

a langauge disorder caused by damaage to the brain structures that support using and understanding lanaguage

Broca's area

This region of the left frontal lobe that controls our ability to articulate speech sounds that compose words is now known as Broca's area

Wernicke's are

orthography

when you recognize a word you effortlessly tranlate the word's visual form (known are its orthography) into the sounds that make up that worx (knonw as its phonology or phonological code)

Children with dyslexia show:

less activity in the left fusufirn cortex (at the bottom of the brain where the temporal and occipital lobes meet), a brain area involved with word recognition and with linking word and sound representations

Pragmatics

is the study of nonlinguistic elements of langiage use. it places heavy emphasis on the speaker's behaviours and the socia situation

- pragmatics reminds us that sometimes what is said is not as important as how it is said 

fast mapping

the abiltity to map words into concepts or an objects after only a single exposure

Cross-fostered

meaning that she was raised as a member of a family that was not the same speices

differential approach

an approach in psychology devoted to tests and measures of individual differences in various psychological properties, including people's abilities to solve probelms

factor analysis

Statistical analysis that examines all of the correlations between all of the items and determines of any of them are highly correlated with each other

Spearmen vs. Galton

Spearmen was correlating different intelligence tests with each other, whereas Galton was trying to correlate more general descriptions of intelligence with physical factors

Resistance

idea of "g" and the conepte of measuring intelligence have endure sustauned attack for over a century

-many peiple resist the idea of differeneces in mental ability, particulalry if they are innate because it seems undemocratic to most people

- if a group scores high on test factor analysis can provide eveidence that they are measuring the same thing

- invented by charles Spearman

The indifference of the indicator

-Spearmen used this phrase to refer to the findding that the content of the test items and the nature of the task used to test general intelligence didn't seem to affect test scores much

Binet-Simon

- from Alfred Binet who believed that intelligence is a collection of hgiher order mental abilities, unlike Galton he also believed that interaction with the environemnt was an important factor

- Binet and Simon introduced the concept of mental age into their test outcomes (you could be 8 with a brain of 10year old or brian of 5 year old)

Stanford-Binet

-Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon concept of mental age and introduced the measure of the intelligence (IQ)

- he divided mental age by chronological age to produce a ratio called IQ

IQ (intelligence quotient)

- a number used to express the intelligence of a person that is calculated using the ratio of the mental age as reported on a standraized test to the chronological age then multipled by 100

Deviation IQ

- a procedure for computing the intelligence quotient; compares an individual's score with those received by other individuals of the same chronological age

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Norming

is accomplished by determining typical perfromance on a standardized test within a population

Standarization

-referes to using the exact same test intems, instructions and scoring procedures for all test takes

Reliability

A characteristic of a measure that provides consistent and stable answers across multiple observations and points in time

Validity

A degree to which the instrument or procedure actually measures what it claims to measure

Polygenic

a trait that is influenced by more than one pair of genes

vEpigenetics

a study of heritable changes that occur without a change  in the DNA sequence

gene-envrionment covariation

- when exposure to environment conditions is correlated with a perosn's genes- for example a person who inherited extroverted characteristics might seek out a job that requires a lot of interaction with other people

The Flynn Effect

- the envrionmental factors that affect intelligence

- the average gain is about three to four IQ points per decade

-possibily causes for this increae includes increades cultural complexity in younger generations and improvements in nutrituon over time

Cognitive Heuristics

-mental shortcuts based on experience

- allow us to think in fast and simple ways

Algorithms

-step-by-step procedures

Availability Heuristic

- the tendency to estimate how frequently somthing occurs based on the ease with which examples come to mind

Base-rate Fallacy

- the tendency to ignore general infromation about the frquency of events in favour of specific salient information such that rare events are overestimated

- (ex: assumtion that someone died sue to a heart attack not a plane crash)

False-Consensus Effect

-the tendency for a person to overestimate the number of people who sahre their beliefs and behaviours

Conjunction Fallacy

-belief that multiple specific conditions are more likely than a single general one

- guessing somones career based on personality  and getting it wrong

Representativeness Heuristic

The representativeness Heuristic is the tendency to ignore base rates and judge the frequency or liklihood of an event by the extent to which it resembles the typical case

ex:Tom is an opera buff who enjoys touring art museums when on vacation. Growing up, he enjoyed playing chess with family members and friends. Which situation is more likely?

 Tom plays trumpet for a major symphony orchestra.

 Tom is a farmer

Anchoring effect

A bias produced when a reference or starting point is provied for a judgement

- the problem is that often the adjustment the person makes is insufficient and remains biased toward the intitial starting point or anchor

Framing Effect

-the effect of wording on judhment and decsion making

- ex: a person is told a drug is 70% effective and another person is told the drug has 30% failure rate..the person who recives 30% failure views it as riskier then the first person 

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

-the framing effect that occurs when indviduals' decsisons and/ or judments are based on past investments they have made

Confirmation Bias

- the process by which people interpret, seek and create infroamtion the confirms already helo beilfes

-"people only see what they want to see"

Priming Account

-the process by which different moods activate different information

Heuristics

- problem-solving strategies that stem from prior experiences and provide an educated guess as to what is the most liklely solution , allows us too make descions quicker

Mental set

is a cognitive obstacle that occurs when an individual attempts to apply a routine solution to what is actually a new type of problem

functional fixed-ness

-which occurs when an individual identifies an object or technique that could potentially solve a problem, but can think of only its most obvious function

Theories of humour

- sometimes referto this as incongruity detection. Incongruities create an initial tension example" Cheetahs= cheaters liike a joking way almsot sounds like cheetah

belief perseverance

- when an individual believes he or she has the soltuion to the problme or the correct answer for a question and will hold onto that belief even in the face of evidence against it

Germinal Period

Gamete

Haploid

Zygote

Diplooid

Cleavage

Morula

A solid mass of blastomeres resulting from a number of cleavages of a zygote

Inner Cell Mass

Trophoblast

Embryo

Blastocyst

Endoderm

Mesoderm

The middle layer of the embryo, lying between the ectoderm and the endoderm

Ectoderm

Neural Tube

The embryo's precursor to the central nervous system

Neurulation

The formation of the embryonic nervous system, which will then develop into the brain and central nervous system 

Neurogenesis

Neural migration

the process through which neurons move, gorw, and connect as the basic neural tube develops into a more mature brain

Cephalocaudal

The pattern of embryonic development in which development occurs most intensely at the head and proceeds downward toward the body

Proximodistal

The pattern of embrynonic development proceeding from the center of the organsim outward

Before apoptosis

an example of apoptosis in prenatal development shown by the hand, which develops at first as an almost finlkike appendage and starts out looking like kind of a flipper

After apoptosis

human hands end up with separate fingers because the cells that exist between what will be the fingers die

Apoptosis

the genetically programmed process of cell death as part of normal development of the normal functioning of cells and organs

Rooting Reflex

Rub your cheek. Does your head automatically turn in that direction, and does your mouth open? Probably not.

Although your head and mouth probably don’t respond in this manner, a newborn baby will reflexively do both of these things.

When infants feel something on one of their cheeks, they turn their head toward the touch and open their mouth (the rooting reflex). This reflex is crucial to feeding but is soon replaced by voluntary behaviours.

Sucking Reflex

If something enters an infant’s mouth while it is open, the infant begins to suck (sucking reflex). Like the rooting reflex, the sucking reflex is crucial to early feeding but is soon replaced by voluntary behaviours

Babinski Reflex

If you stroke the underside of an infant’s foot, he or she will automatically fan and then curl the toes. This response is called the Babinski reflex.

Tonic Neck Reflex

The tonic neck reflex occurs when infants turn their head to one side, extend the arm on the same side as their gaze, and flex the arm and knee on the opposite side of the body

Stepping Reflex

When held upright over a flat surface, infants move their feet in a walk-like fashion, demonstrating a stepping reflex

Moro Reflex

The Moro reflex occurs when infants throw out their arms and grasp if they feel themselves dropping unexpectedly. This reflex is thought to be of little use now but perhaps was useful to our apelike ancestors, who may have allowed their offspring to cling to them as they walked.

Eye Blink Reflex

The eye blink reflex is present from birth until death, protecting our eyes from foreign objects and bright lights.

Bronfenbrenner’s model is made up of five types of systems at different levels.

The microsystem (level 1) consists of you and your relationships with those in your immediate surroundings, such as family, teachers, and peers.

The mesosystem (level 2) is made up of connections between different relationships you have within your microsystem.

The exosystem (level 3) refers to those settings that you might not directly experience but remain influenced by.

The macrosystem (level 4) refers to the larger social constructs that shape your environment in less-direct ways.

The chronosystem (level 5) encompasses those historical changes that influence development and those systems that surround us. The chronosystem also refers to the way in which you take a greater role in the course of your development as you age.

Synapses

Junction between the terminal button of one neuron and the membrane of a muscle fibre, a gland, or another reason

Synapses

Junction between the terminal button of one neuron and the membrane of a muscle fibre, a gland, or another reason

Synaptogenesis

Synaptic Pruning

Facilitates a change in neural structure by reducing the overall number of synapses, leaving more efficient synaptic configurations

-Synaptic pruning happens throughout development, occurring not only in infancy but also in middle childhood and adolescence, and, to a lesser extent, throughout life.

It has been estimated that humans will lose over 40% of their synapses in some areas of the brain. During these periods, many neurons will undergo apoptosis, a process of programmed cell death (initiated in this case by low levels of neuronal activity). We first encountered this process during prenatal development.

Further reductions in the number of synapses occur at the level of the neuron, which can both grow and shed connections to other neurons in response to its own activity levels. This is called synaptic plasticity, and it occurs throughout life in response to which connections neurons are using or not using.

experience-dependent plasticity

- the ability of the nervous system to wire and rewire itself in response to lasting changes in experience

experience-expectant plasticity

- development that will not happen unless a particular experience occurs during its critical period

Myelination

the development of  the myelin sheath around the axons of neurons. This sheath insulates neurons from each other and increases the speed at which neurons transmit information

Strabismus

lack of corrdination between the eyes

Amblyopia

the loss or lack of development of central vision in one eye that is unrealted to any eye health problem and is not correctable with lenses

Executive Functioning

-functions involoved in goal-directed behaviour, planning, and problem solving

Menarche

spermarche

pseudoscience

an idea that is presented as science but does not actually utilze basic principles of scientific thinking or procedure

biopsychosocial model

is a means of explaining behaviour as a product of biological and sociocultural factors

sensitive period

is a window of time during which exposure to a specific type of environment stimulation is needed for normal development of a specific ability

cognitive development

the study of change in memory, thought and reasoning processes that occur throughout the lifespace

Assimilation

accommodation

a creative process whereby people modify their belief structures based on expereince

sensorimotor stage

this stage spans from birth to two years, during which infants' thinking about and exploration of the world are based on immediate sensory (ex. seeing,feeling) and motor (ex:grabbing, mouthing)

object permanence

the ability to understand that objects exisit even when they cannot be directly perceived

preoperational stage (ages two to seven) his stage is devoted to language development , the use of symbols, pretend play, and mastering the concept of conservation (discussed below)

preoperational stage (ages two to seven) 

conservation

concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11 years) 

formal operational stage (ages 11 to adulthood)

core knowledge hypothesis

Habituation

Dishabituation

zone of proximal development

development is ideal when children attempt skills and activities that are just beyond what they can do alone, but they have guidance from adults who are attentive to their progress

scaffolding

a highly attentive appraoch to teaching in which the teacher matches gudance to the leanner's needs

strange situation

Secure attachment

-the caregiver is a secure base that the child turns toward occasionally "ching in" for reassurance as she explores the room , the child shows show distress when the caregiver leaves and avoid the stranger ..child seeks comfort and her distress is relieved

Insecure attachment

-Anxious/ Ambivalent: the caregiver is a base of security, but the child depends too strongly on the cargiver, "clingy" behaviours rather than being comfortable exploring the room on his own. The child is very upset when the caregiver leaves, and is quite fearful toward the stranger. When the caregiver returns, the child is very upset when the caregiver leaves, and is quite fearful toward the stranger. When the caregiver returns , the child seeks comfort, but then also resists it and pushes the caregiver away, not allowing his distress to be easily alleviated

-Avoidant- the child behaves as though she does not need the caregiver at all, and plays in the room as though she is oblivious to the caregiver leaves, and is unconcerned about the stranger. When the caregiver returns, the child does not seek contact

theory of mind

the abilty to understand that other people have thoughts, beliefs, and prespectives that may be different from one's own

1st stage, Infancy focuses on:

the issue of trust vs. mistrust

- the infant's key challenge in life is developing a baisc sense of security, of feeling comfortable in a strange and oftenr indiferent world

2nd stage, Toddlerhood focuses on:

the challenge of autonomy vs. shame

-the toddler is able to move herslef about increasingly independently, is poised to discover a whole new world

-the toddler discovers they are seprate from other creature

-exploring her feelings of autonomy-exercising her will as an individual in the world- becomes very important

- also stuborn resistance

- at the end of this stage the person is ideally secure and they feel a basic sense of themselves as having separate needs from others

3rd stage, Early childhood docues on:

-it is characterzied as the challenge of initiative vs. guilt

- building on the emotional security and sense of self-assurance that comes from the first two stages, here the gorwing child learns to take repsonsibility for herlsef while feeling like she has has the abiltiy to influence parts of her physical and social world

- it involves the child to push thier boundaries

4th stage, Childhood is all about:

industry vs. inferiority

-here the child is focuses on the tasks of life, like school and various skill devlopment activities that take place for the big chunk of childhood

- the child increass feelings of being in control of her actions , leading her to be able to regulate herslef to acheice long-term goals, develop productive habits and gain a sense of herself as activelt engaged in her own life

attachment behavioural system

caregiving behavioural system

Introjection

Inductive disicpline

Piaget emphasized the importance of:

-interaction between envrionemental and maturational factors in development

- he developed his theroy of cognitive development based off naturalistic observations he proposed that cogntive abailtites develop in stages and that children of similare ages have similar congintive abilities

- also children of the same age make similar errors in problem solving

- he is criticized for focusing on the age at which one stage occusrs instead of the envrionment

Concrete Operational Stage

- ages 11-12

- experience growth in their ability to understand feelings and thought of others (presepctive taking)

-addionally , they will comprehend more complicated casue-and -effect relations and begin to understand logical porblme soliving

- the third period in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, during which children come to understand conservation, perspective taking, and other concepts such as categorization

Formal operational stage

-which extends from the end of concrete operations (age 12) into adulthood

- a person gains the abilty to think about abstract conccepts as well as to formulate and test hypotheses in a logical and scientfic fashion

Problems with Piaget's  Theory

modern serach shows that the cognitive capacity of infants is much greater than Piaget theorized

Socio-Cultural Theory

-the theory of cognitive development that places emphasis on environmental factors, including cultural influences

Intersubjectivity

Joint attention

Social Referencing

Core Knowledge Theory

Theory Theory

- purposes that children learn and develop knowledge about the world much in the same way that scientisits do:

children form coherent and abstract models (systems of rules) about the ways in which the world functions and then actively exepreiment to test and revise models

Comparative Perspective

focuses on non-human animals to better understand the evolution of behaviour and mental process

Rouge Test

Self-concepy

Autobiographical Memory

Imaginary audience

vTheory of Mind (longer version)

-is the ability to reasaon about what other people might know or believe and how those beliefs and knowledge will relate to their actions,

-it also encompasses the ability to understand differences in visual, philosophical, or experiential perspectives among people, and to understand differeneces in motives , goals or desires

- it is called "theory of mind" becauee while the mental states of tohers are not directly obervable, we can make predictions about them with some accuracy based on experience

- developes aournd age 4

False belief problmes

Displacement test

Intersubjectivity

-an understanding between two individuals of the topic they are discussing

- minutes after birth infants are capable of intersubjectivitiy in a limited sense

Infant Habituation

Consisten Lies

Perseveration

-inabilty to swtich strategies as new information is presented: the intial strategy might work, but when a change is called for, the strategy remians the same. OFten occurs in young children and individuals with front lobe damage

- a test is to sort cards accroding to colour or shape

altruism

Prosciol Behaviour

-positive, constructive , helpful behaviour that is beneficial to others that are usually at cost to onself

- by 14 months of age some infants will begin ti orivide spontarnous aid to others themselves

Empathy

Aggression

delay gratification

The minnesota Multiphasic Inventory (MMPI-2)

The NEO Personality Inventory (N,E and O stand for neuroticism,

extrocersion and openess to expereince)

-it is an objective test that measures personality factos

-the NEO provides a seriers of statments that a person agrees or disagress with on a five-point scale. The most recent verison, the NEO-PI-3, measures five factors and is based on the five-facot model 

Porjective Tests

= the Rorschach test is undoubtedly the best-known projective test.

- Aa seriers of inkblots test 

Porjective Tests

= the Rorschach test is undoubtedly the best-known projective test.

- Aa seriers of inkblots test 

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

is a projective test in which the person makes up stories about a series of ambiguous pictures presented on cards

- the idea is that the person will project his or her personality onto the made=up story 

Factor Analaysis

Factors

16 PF Questionnaire

-multiple-choice personalty questionnaire developed by Cattell to measure 16 normal adult personality dimensions

The big 5:

Openness  to Expereince

-this personality factor describes an individual's willingness to participate in new expereinces, having a wide set of interests, and being creative/imagnative

Conscientiousness

-this factor describes how organized, methodical, disciplined and motivated (to achieve goals)one is

Extraversion

-this personality factor descirbes how talkative, outgoing and assertive one is

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

-this personality factor descrbies the extent to which one is anxious and tense. Someone who is described as being hgih on this factor tends to exhibit anxiety

NEO Personality Inventory

- instrument used to measure the elements described in the five-factor model

Psychodynamic

-the general term for psychological theories that emphasize the relationship between the conscious and unconscious and the interaction among the various drives and forcess within a person

Psychoanalytic Theory

Fixation

Defense Mechanisms

Mental systems that become active whenever unconscious instinctual drives of the id come into conflict with the internalized prohibitions of the superego.

Mature Defenses

Mature defenses involve the least reality distortion and are associated with the most adaptive coping (e.g., humour and suppression). With suppression, negative information is available to the conscious mind but doesn’t overrun it, and the person can think about it when he or she chooses.

A longitudinal study 

Intermediate Defenses

-Intermediate defenses involve less distortion of reality and lead to somewhat more effective behaviour (e.g., repression, reaction formation, sublimation).

Immature Defenses

Psychoanalysis

Form of therapy aimed at providing the client with insight into his or her unconscious motivations and impulses.

Free Association

Method of Freudian analysis in which an individual is asked to relax, clear his or her mind of current thoughts, and then report all thoughts, images, perceptions, and feelings that come to mind.

Dream Analysis

Phenomenological Reality

Unconditional Positive Regard

Maslow’s Hierarchy Of Needs

Motivation for different activities passes through several levels of need, with entrance to subsequent levels dependent on first satisfying the needs of previous levels.

 Physiological needs (minimum essentials of life, such as water and food)

 Safety needs (protection from dangers in the environment, shelter)

 Belonging needs (experiencing close relationships with others)

 Esteem needs (competence, self-respect)

 Self-actualization (discovering and fully enjoying the true meaning of life)

Reciprocal Determinism

Cognitive Constructs

Locus Of Control

Internal Locus Of Control

External Locus Of Control

Learned Helplessness

Self-Efficacy

Individualistic

Culture in which people give priority to their own goals over group goals and define their personal identities in terms of personal attributes rather than group attributes

Collectivist

idiographic approach

-focusing on creating detailed descriptions of specific person's unique personality charateristics

- ID appraoches are helpful in understanding yourself and the social world

nomothetic appraoch

personality trait

factor analysis

-is used to group items that people respond to similarly; for instance, the terms friendly warm, and kind have similar meanings and can be grouped in a cluster referredto as a factor

Five-Factor-Model (FFM)

- a trait-based theroy of personality based on the finding that  personality can be described using five major dimensions

-this model has become the most popular trait-based appraoch for academic personality researchers, and has been cited in hundred of research articles 

Openness high and low scores

high= creative, artistic, noconforming

low= conventional down to earth 

Conscientiousness high and low scores

high= ambitious, organized , reliable, self-disciplined

low= unreliable, lazy, casual, spontaneous

Extraversion high and low scores

high= social, enjoy high levels of stimulation

low= reserved, enjoy low level of stimulation

agreeableness high and low scores

high= good natured , trusting, supportive

low= rude, uncooperative, irritable, hostile, competitive

Neuroticsm high and low scores

high= worried, insecure, anxiet-prone

low= tranquil, secure , emotionally stable

Dark Triad

Machiavelliansim

Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA)

-as a problematic set of personaltity characteristics that also predisposes people to certain types of violent or anti-social tendencies RWA involves three key tendencies

1. obeying orders and deferring to the established authorities in a society

2. supporting aggression against those who dissent or differ from the established social order; and

3. believing strongly in maintaining the existing social order

- RWA personality is a strong tendency to think in dogmatic terms, everything is black or white with no shades of gret

-highly ressitant to change

-RWAs are likely to advocate a harsh stance toward people who deviate from the established social order , such as political activists, feminists,atheists and members of ethnic minorities

Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA)

reciprocal determinism

- based on the idea that the person and the environment co-create each other; thus personaloty is what emerges from the interactions between behavious internal (personal) factors, and external (situational) factors, all of which mutually inflience each other

response styles

humourism

Phrenology

Arousal Theory of Extraversion

ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)

- plays a central role in controlling this arousal response

- extraverts do have less reactive ARASs compared to introverts

behavioural activation system (BAS)

-is a "GO" system arousing the person to action in the pursuit of desired goals

- this system is responsive to rewards and fairly unresponsive to possible negative consequences; greater BAS activation therefor is associated with greater positive emotional response and appraoach motivation

behavioural inhibition system (BIS)

Extraversion in the brain:

- extraverts have a larger medial orbitofrontal cortex

- the medial orbitofrontal cortex is involved in processing reward, which is consistent with extraverts' greater reward sensitivitiy

- they have an under-active amygdala

Amygdala

Medial Orbitofrontal cortex

- involved in processing reward

Neuroticism in the brain:

- is associated with the size of verious brain areas , such as a smaller dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, a smaller hippocampus and a larger midcingulate gyrus

- the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex is involved in controlling emotions

- the hippocampus in controlling obsessive negative thinking

- the mid-cingulate gyrus in detecting erroes and perceiveing pain- physcial or emotional pain

- they are obsessive negative thinkers and highly sensitive when they make mistakes or feel pain 

Agreeableness in the brain:

- show less brain volume in an area called the left superior temporal sulcus, which is activated when one is interpreting another person's actions or intentions

- they also show greater volume in an area called the posterior cingulate cortex which is involved in empathy and perspective-taking

- these brain ares match the tendency for people high in aggreablness to be ore socially attuned and have more empathy for others

Conscientiousness

- people high in this trait have larger brain volume in the middle frontal gyrus in the left prefrontal cortex, which is involved in working memory processes and in carrying out actions that you have planned

- these finctions are implicated in effective self-control, which is a key strength of the highly consceientious person

Openness to Expereince

The ID

-The id is a completely unconscious reservoir of psychic energy. It strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on a pleasure principle and demanding immediate gratification.

- represents a collection of basic biological drives, including those directed toward sex and aggression

The Ego

-The ego is largely conscious, mediating the conflicting demands of the id, the superego, and reality. It strives to satisfy the id’s desires in appropriate ways that bring pleasure rather than pain. It operates on a reality principle.

- the dcision maker, frequently under tension, trying to reconcile the opposing urges of the id and superego

The Superego

The superego is a partly conscious, partly unconscious structure that strives to live up to our internalized ideals and desires to follow the rules and restrictions society places on us. The superego punishes the ego, for example, by creating feelings of guilt and shame.

- is comprised of values and moral standards

Denial

Displacment

Identification

Projection

Rationalization

Raction Formation

Repression

Subimation

Fixation

projective tests

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Analytical psychology

Personal unconscious

The Collective unconscious

-is a separate , non-personal realm of unconscious that holds the collective memories and mythologies of humankind, stetching deep into out ancestral past

archetypes

inferiority complex

person-centred perspective

Self- actualization

Self-Schema

Schematicity

Aschematic

Introspection

Feective forecasting

self-perception theory

looking glass self

self-esteem

sociometer theory

sociometer theory

Terror Management Theory

Self-Handicapping

Basking In Reflected Glory

Downward Social Comparisons

Self-Serving Cognition

Better-than-average effect

Unrealistic optimism

Self-serving attributions

Self-Discrepancy Theory

Our self-esteem and emotional states are determined by the match or mismatch between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves

-The actual self (i.e., self-concept) refers to people’s beliefs regarding their actual attributes.

The “ought self” guide refers to people’s beliefs regarding what they and important others think they should or ought to be (e.g., nice, generous).

The “ideal self” guide refers to people’s beliefs regarding what they and important others would like them to be (e.g., athletic, a great singer).

Fundamental Attribution Error

Knowledge-Across-Situations Hypothesis

Visual-Orientation Hypothesis

Stereotypes

Prejudice

Discrimination

Minimal Groups Phenomenon

Out-Group Homogeneity Effect

Realistic Conflict Theory

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Stereotype-based expectancy that causes a person to act in a manner consistent with the stereotype

Stereotype Threat

A fear among members of a group that they may confirm or be judged in terms of a negative stereotype when they are in situations relevant to that stereotype.

Five Main Functions of attitude:

Utilitarian: Having attitudes helps us function efficiently. If we know what we think is “good” or “bad”, we can pursue the good things and avoid the bad things.

Social-Adjustive: Attitudes can foster social cohesion with others. For example, sharing similar attitudes can bring people together and provide a sense of group identity.

Value-Expressive: Attitudes show who we are and what we stand for. For example, someone who highly values education may have a positive attitude toward teachers.

Ego-Defensive: Attitudes help us feel good about ourselves and enhance self-esteem.

Knowledge: Attitudes simplify our understanding of the world and allow us to use heuristics.

Bradley Effect

Explicit Measures

Implicit Measures

Implicit measures, also called indirect methods, are designed to assess attitudes without people knowing their attitudes are being measured.

Researchers use indirect measurements for two main reasons. People are not actually aware of some attitudes that they hold. In addition, people may deliberately misreport their attitudes if they have social desirability concerns (i.e., are concerned with how others will perceive their attitude).

If you have ever taken a political poll, you may have noticed that the pollster asked you a series of questions that seemed unrelated to the ostensible purpose of the poll. These questions are intended to identify your implicit attitudes. Poll takers use them to correct for the Bradley Effect and other cultural biases as well as for other attitudinal biases.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A flexible task designed to tap automatic associations between concepts (e.g., math and arts) and attributes (e.g., good or bad, male or female, self or other).

Attitude-Behaviour Specificity Matching Model

Very specific attitudes predict a corresponding specific behaviour very well, but do not predict general patterns of responding across many behaviours.

Persuasion

Message Learning Theory

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Self-Persuasion

Central route processing(when people care about the message)

- paying attention to the facts central to the message

- focusing on the facts about the product or service

Peripheral route processing (when people care about message)

- using mental shortcuts or focusing on cues outside the message

- external influences, flashy signs, luxery or good taster

- descions are less stable

Foot-in the -door

-when the sales person make a small request like getting them to drive and then that leads to larger request, to buy the car

- the customer is most likly agreed to the largest request since they already agreed to the smaller request

Door-in-the_face

- making a large uneasonable request then coming back to a smaller request

that's not all

- adding extras and buyer feels like they "owe" somthing to the salemen so they most likly will buy the car

mimicry

taking on for ourselves the behavious, emotional displays and facial expressions of others

chameleon effect

-describes how poeple mimic others non-consciously , automatically copying others' behaviours even without realizing it

- smiling when others smile

Soical norms

social loafing

soical facilitation

groupthink

Normative influence

Informational Influence

Attributions

Covariation Principle

An attribution theory in which people make causal inferences to explain why they and other people behave in a certain way.