Term
| Why can't we rely on intuition? |
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Definition
| hindsight bias, judgmental overconfidence, and tendency to perceive patterns in random events |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it |
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Term
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Definition
| examines assumptions, disccerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. |
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Term
| curiosity, skepticism, humility |
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Definition
| makes modern science possible |
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Term
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Definition
| an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts behaviors or events |
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Term
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Definition
| a testable prediction, often implied by a theory |
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Term
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Definition
| a statement of the procedures used to define research variables |
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Term
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Definition
| repeating the essence of a research study, with different participants in different situations, to see whether the other basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances |
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Term
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Definition
| an observable technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles |
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Term
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Definition
| watching and recording the natural behavior of many individuals |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation |
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Term
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Definition
| all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn |
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Term
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Definition
| a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion |
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Term
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Definition
| a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other |
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Term
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Definition
| a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1) |
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Term
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Definition
| a graphed cluster of dots which represents the values of two variables |
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Term
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Definition
| research method in which an investigator manipulates one of more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process |
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Term
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Definition
| in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment |
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Term
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Definition
| in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment |
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Term
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Definition
| assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups |
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Term
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Definition
| an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo |
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Term
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Definition
| the experimental factor that is manipulated, the variable whose effect is being studied |
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Term
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Definition
| a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment |
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Term
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Definition
| the outcome factor, the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable |
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Term
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Definition
| to observe and record behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| to detect naturally occurring relationships, to assess how well one variable predicts another |
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Term
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Definition
| to explore cause and effect |
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Term
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Definition
| the most frequently occurring score |
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Term
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Definition
| the arithmetic average of a distribution |
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Term
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Definition
| the middle score in a distribution |
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Term
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Definition
| the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution |
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Term
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Definition
| a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score |
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Term
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Definition
| a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many times of data |
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Term
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Definition
| a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance |
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Term
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Definition
| the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next |
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Term
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Definition
| an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate |
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Term
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Definition
| the postexperimental explanation of a study, including the purpose and any deceptions, to its participants |
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Term
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Definition
| the links between biology and behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| a nerve cell, the basic building block of the nervous system |
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Term
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Definition
| a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body |
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Term
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Definition
| the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some nuerons |
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Term
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Definition
| a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon |
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Term
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Definition
| the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse |
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Term
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Definition
| the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron |
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Term
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Definition
| chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron |
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Term
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Definition
| "morphine within" - natural opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure |
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Term
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Definition
| the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems |
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Term
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Definition
| the brain and spinal cord |
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Term
| peripheral nervous system |
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Definition
| the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body |
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Term
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Definition
| bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs |
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Term
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Definition
| neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands |
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Term
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Definition
| neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands |
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Term
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Definition
| neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs |
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Term
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Definition
| the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles |
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Term
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Definition
| the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs |
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Term
| sympathetic nervous system |
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Definition
| the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations |
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Term
| parasympathetic nervous system |
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Definition
| the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy |
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Term
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Definition
| a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response |
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Term
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Definition
| the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream |
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Term
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Definition
| chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues |
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Term
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Definition
| a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress |
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Term
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Definition
| the endocrine system;s most influential gland. under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands |
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Term
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Definition
| tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissues |
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Term
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Definition
| an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface |
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Term
| positron emission tomography scan |
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Definition
| a visual display off brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task |
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Term
| magnetic resonance imaging |
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Definition
| a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue |
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Term
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Definition
| a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans |
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Term
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Definition
| the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions |
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Term
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Definition
| the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing |
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Term
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Definition
| the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla |
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Term
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Definition
| a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and plays an important role in controlling arousal |
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Term
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Definition
| the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance |
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Term
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Definition
| neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives |
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Term
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Definition
| two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion |
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Term
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Definition
| a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward |
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Term
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Definition
| the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center |
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Term
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Definition
| cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking |
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Term
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Definition
| portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments |
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Term
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Definition
| portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields |
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Term
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Definition
| portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields |
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Term
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Definition
| portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear |
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Term
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Definition
| an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements |
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Term
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Definition
| area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations |
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Term
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Definition
| areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking |
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Term
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Definition
| the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience |
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Term
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Definition
| the formation of new neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them |
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Term
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Definition
| a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them |
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Term
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Definition
| the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language) |
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Term
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Definition
| the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks |
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Term
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Definition
| a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it |
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Term
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Definition
| the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere |
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Term
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Definition
| failing to notice changes in the environment |
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Term
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Definition
| the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle |
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Term
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Definition
| rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur |
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Term
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Definition
| the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state |
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Term
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Definition
| periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness- as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation |
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Term
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Definition
| false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep |
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Term
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Definition
| recurring problems falling or staying asleep |
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Term
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Definition
| a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. the sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune time |
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Term
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Definition
| a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings |
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Term
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Definition
| a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during nrem-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered |
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Term
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Definition
| a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it |
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Term
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Definition
| according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream |
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Term
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Definition
| according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content) |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep) |
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Term
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Definition
| a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur |
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Term
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Definition
| a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others |
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Term
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Definition
| a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods |
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Term
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Definition
| the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect |
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Term
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Definition
| compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences |
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Term
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Definition
| the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug |
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Term
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Definition
| a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued |
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Term
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Definition
| a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions |
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Term
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Definition
| drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions |
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Term
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Definition
| alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal if suspended, and drive to continue use |
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Term
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Definition
| drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment |
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Term
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Definition
| opium and its deriatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety |
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Term
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Definition
| drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body |
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Term
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Definition
| opium and its deriatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety |
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Term
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Definition
| drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions |
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Term
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Definition
| drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes |
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Term
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Definition
| a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco |
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Term
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Definition
| a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels |
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Term
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Definition
| a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short term health risks and longer term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition |
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Term
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Definition
| psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input |
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Term
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Definition
| a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid |
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Term
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Definition
| an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations |
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Term
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Definition
| the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations |
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Term
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Definition
| the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us |
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Term
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Definition
| threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes |
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Term
| DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) |
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Definition
| a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein |
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Term
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Definition
| the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| twins who develop from a sing (monozygnotic) fertilized eff that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms |
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Term
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Definition
| twins who develop from separate (dizygotic) fertilized eggs. they are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment |
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Term
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Definition
| a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity |
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Term
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Definition
| the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes |
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Term
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Definition
| the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. the heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied |
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Term
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Definition
| the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity) |
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Term
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Definition
| the study of influences of gene expression that occur without a DNA change |
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Term
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Definition
| the study of the evolution of behavior of the mind, using principles of natural selection |
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Term
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Definition
| the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on succeeding generations |
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Term
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Definition
| the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on succeeding generations |
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Term
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Definition
| a random error in gene replication that leads to a change |
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Term
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Definition
| in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female |
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Term
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Definition
| the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next |
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Term
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Definition
| an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. norms prescribe "proper" behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications |
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Term
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Definition
| giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group)and defining one's identity accordingly |
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Term
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Definition
| physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone |
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Term
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Definition
| the sex chromosome found in both men and women. females have two, males have one. from each chromosome from each parent produces a female child |
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Term
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Definition
| the sex chromosome found only in males. when paired with an x chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child |
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Term
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Definition
| the most important of the male sex hormones. both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty |
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Term
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Definition
| a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave |
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Term
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Definition
| a set of expected behaviors for males or for females |
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Term
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Definition
| the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being punished or rewarded |
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Term
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Definition
| our sense of being male or female |
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Term
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Definition
| the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role |
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Term
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Definition
| an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex |
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Term
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Definition
| a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span |
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Term
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Definition
| the fertilized egg, it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo |
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Term
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Definition
| the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month |
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Term
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Definition
| the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth |
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Term
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Definition
| agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm |
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Term
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Definition
| physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. in severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions |
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Term
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Definition
| decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner |
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Term
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Definition
| biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience |
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Term
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Definition
| all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
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Term
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Definition
| a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information |
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Term
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Definition
| interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas |
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Term
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Definition
| adapting our current understandings to incorporate new information |
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Term
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Definition
| in Piaget's theory, the state (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities |
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Term
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Definition
| the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived |
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Term
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Definition
| in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view |
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Term
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Definition
| in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic |
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Term
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Definition
| the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operation reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects |
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Term
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Definition
| people's ideas about their ownand others' mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict |
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Term
| concrete operational stage |
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Definition
| in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events |
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Term
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Definition
| in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (beginning at about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts |
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Term
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Definition
| a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind |
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Term
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Definition
| the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months ago |
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Term
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Definition
| an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation |
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Term
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Definition
| the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months ago |
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Term
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Definition
| an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation |
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Term
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Definition
| an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life |
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Term
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Definition
| according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers |
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Term
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Definition
| our understanding and evaluation of who we are |
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Term
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Definition
| the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence |
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Term
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Definition
| the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing |
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Term
| primary sex characteristics |
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Definition
| the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible |
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Term
| secondary sex characteristics |
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Definition
| non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality and body hair |
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Term
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Definition
| the first menstrual period |
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Term
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Definition
| our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles |
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Term
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Definition
| the we aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "who am I?" that comes from our group membership |
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Term
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Definition
| in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood |
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Term
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Definition
| in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood |
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Term
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Definition
| for some people in modern cultures, aperiod from the late teens to mid-twenties bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood |
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Term
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Definition
| the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines |
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Term
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Definition
| a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another |
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Term
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Definition
| research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period |
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Term
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Definition
| the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement |
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Term
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Definition
| the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement |
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