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Psychology Exam Review
from document provided by Dr. Garon
84
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
04/04/2011

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
What are the 4 major theories of personality?
Definition
1. Trait
2. Behavioural and social learning
3. Psychodynamic
4. Humanistic
Term
What are the two major approaches to studying personality?
Definition
Nomothetic approach - approach that focuses on identifying general laws that govern the behaviour of all individuals (tries to find generalizations of why people in general have certain personality traits)
Idioraphic approach - approach that focuses on identifying unique configurations of a characteristic and life history experiences within a person
Term
What are the big Five traits?
Definition
Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness, Extraversion
Term
Conscientiousness
Definition
conscientious people tend to be careful and responsible
Term
Agreeableness
Definition

agreeable people tend to be friendly and easy to get along with

Term
Neuroticism
Definition
neurotic people tend to be tense and moody
Term
Openness to experience
Definition
open people tend to be intellectually curious and unconventional 
Term
Extraversion
Definition
extraverted people tend to be social and lively
Term
What is the difference between basic tendencies and trait adaptations?
Definition

basic tendencies are underlying personality traits

trait adaptations are the behavioural manifestations of the underlying personality traits. 

 

The point is that people can have very similar basic tendencies but they may display those tendencies with very different trait adaptations

Term
What was Mischel's criticism of the trait theory? how did Epstein address this criticism?
Definition

There are low correlations among different behaviours believed to reflect the same trait. For example, a child that lies won't necessarily cheat.

 

Epstein believe Mischel was right in that personality traits aren't highly predictive of behaviour but personality traits are often highly predictive of Aggrgated behaviours (composites of behaviour averaged across many stiuations).

 

Mischel was right that personality traits don't predict behaviour in a single situation, but wrong in that they do predict behaviour trends

Term
What studies are used to assess the heritability of a trait?
Definition
molecular genetic studies are investigations that allow researchers to pinpoint genes associated with specific personality traits
Term
Social Learning theory of personality
Definition
theorists emphasize thinking as a cause of personality, ex: how we interpret our environment affects how we react to them
Term
How does social learning differ from behaviourism views of personality?
Definition

Behaviourists neglect the social learning theorists idea of observational learning --> much learning occurs from watching others

 

Reciprocal determinism --> a form of causation whereby personality and cognitive factors, behaviour, and environmental factors mutually influence each other, part of Bandura's social learning theory

Term
Explain internal and external loci of control. 
Definition

A locus of control is the extent to which people believe reinforcers and punishers lie inside or outside of their control

Internal locus of control - believe that life events are due largely to their own efforts and personal characteristics

 

External locus of control - life events are largely a product of chance and fate

Term
What are the 3 core assumptions of psychoanalysis?
Definition
Psychic determinism, symbolic meaning and unconscious motivation
Term
What is psychic determinism?
Definition
the assumption that all psychological events have a cause
Term
Symbolic Meaning (Psychoanalytic theory)
Definition
everything is symbolic of something else, all are attributable to preceding mental causes 
Term
Unconscious Motivation
Definition

submerged psyche 

[image]

Term
Name Freud's 2 main divisions/agencies of the mind.
Definition
Id, Ego and Superego
Term
Id
Definition
reservoir of our most primitive impulses, including sex and aggression
Term
ego
Definition
as the psyche's principal decision maker, it caters to the id's demands
Term
pleasure principle
Definition
id operates by means of this, tendency of the id to strive for immediate gratification
Term
reality principle
Definition
ego is governed by this, tendency of the ego to postpone gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet
Term
superego
Definition
our sense of morality
Term
Defence mechanisms
Definition
unconscious manoeuvres intended to minimize anxiety
Term
Name some defence mechanisms and explain them. 
Definition

Repression – motivated forgetting of emotionally threatening memories or impulses, triggered by anxiety

·      Childhood amnesia – inability to remember childhood prior to about age three and a half

Denial – motivated forgetting of distressing external experiences, most often observed in people with psychotic disorders

Regression – the act of returning psychologically to a younger, and typically simpler, safer age

Reaction-formation – transformation of an anxiety-provoking emotion into its opposite, homophobia example

Projection – unconscious attribution of our negative characteristics to others (ex. People who are paranoid want to hurt others, so they perceive others as wanting to harm them)

Displacement – directing an impulse from a socially unacceptable target onto a safer and more socially acceptable target  (ex. Punching bag rather than someone’s face)

Rationalization – providing a reasonable sounding explanation for unreasonable behaviours or failures

Intellectualization – avoiding emotions associated with anxiety-provoking experiences by focusing on abstract and impersonal thoughts (ex. When dealing with divorce, may figure out the statistics of how many marriages fail, instead of focusing on emotions)

Sublimation – transforming a socially unacceptable impulse into an admired goal (kid sets fires, grows up to be a firefighter)

Term
Freud's 5 stages of personality development.
Definition

Oral stage – psychosexual stage that focuses on the mouth, birth until 12 or 18 months, sucking, drinking or crying

Anal Stage – psychosexual stage that focuses on toilet training, 18 months to 3 years

Phallic Stage – psychosexual stage that focuses on the genitals, age 3 to 6

Latency Stage – psychosexual stage in which sexual impulses are submerged into the unconscious, 6 years to 12 years

Genital Stage – psychosexual stage in which sexual impulses awaken and typically begin to mature into romantic attraction toward others  

Term
Oedipus complex
Definition
conflict during phallic stage in which boys supposedly love their mothers romantically and want to eliminate their fathers as rivals
Term
Electra Complex
Definition
conflict during phallic stage in which girls supposedly love their fathers romantically and want to eliminate their mothers as rivals
Term
Penis Envy
Definition
supposed desire of girls to posses a penis 
Term
How did the Neo-Freudians differ from Freud in their conception of personality?
Definition
they placed less emphasis on sexuality as a driving force in personality and were more optimistic regarding the prospects for long-term personality growth
Term
According to humanists, what motivates our behaviour?
Definition
They propose that it is self-actualization: the drive to develop our innate potential to the fullest possible extent
Term
Describe the 3 tenets of Roger's model of personality
Definition

The organism - our innate genetic imprint, like the id but it is much more positive and helpful toward others

 

The self - our self-concept/set of beliefs about who we are

 

Conditions of worth - expectations we place on ourselves for appropriate and inappropriate behaviour

 

 

Term
What is incongruence?
Definition
inconsistency between our personalities and innate dispositions
Term
What is an example of a projective personality test?
Definition

They are paper and pencil tests consisting of questions that respondents answer in one of a few fixed ways

 

MMPI ( Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)

Term
What is a projective personality test?
Definition
tests consisting of ambiguous stimuli that examinees must interpret of make sense of
Term
TAT vs. Rorschach inkblot test
Definition

Rorschach's consists of showing patients ten symmetrical inkblots and then they will say what it resembles.

 

the thematic apperception test requires examinees to tell a story in response to looking at ambiguous pictures. 

Term
How do we define abnormal behaviour?
Definition

·       Statistical rarity

·      Subjective distress – is causing somebody pain

·      Impairment

·      Societal disapproval

·      Biological dysfunction 

Term
What is the DSM?
Definition

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV)

·      List of symptoms and a decision rule

·      Biopsychosocial approach – acknowledges the interplay between biological, psychological and social influences

·      Utilizes prevalence of mental disorders and assesses patients along multiple axes (dimensions of functioning) (first.. main disorder, second mental disorder… 3rd how well someone is function)

Term

What was moral treatment?

What was deinstitutionalization?

Why did it occur?

Definition

approach to mental illness calling for dignity, kindness, and respect for the mentally ill

·      Dorothea Dix and Phillipe Pinel

 

 

1960s and 1970s government policy that focused on releasing hospitalized psychiatric patients into the community and closing mental hospitals

·      No follow up so people often end up homeless

 

This occurred because of chlorpromazine prescriptions 

Term
Before the 15th century, how did they deal with mental illness?
Definition

Asylums – institutions for the mentally ill created in the fifteenth century

Asylum means a place of safety

Blood letting – believed that excess blood caused mental illness so they drained people of 40% of their total blood.

Snake pit – used to throw people into pits of snakes to scare away their mental illnesses 

 

the salem witch trials, exorcisms (from the demonic model)

Term
What is the difference between categorical versus dimensional model of mental disorder?
Definition

Categorical model - model in which a mental disorder differs from normal functioning in kind rather than degree (ex: a woman is pregnant or she's not, this or that)

 

Dimensional model - model in which a mental disorder differs from normal functioning in degree rather than kind (ex: different heights, high, low, medium functioning)

Term
What does a court require for a person to be deemed not guilty by reason of insanity?
Definition

legal defence proposing that people shouldn’t be held legally responsible for their actions if they weren’t of “sound mind” when committing them

 

Requires the components of the McNaughton rule

·      have not known what they were doing at the time of the crime

·      didn’t know what they were doing was wrong

Term
Incompetence to stand trial, what two things are required
Definition

1. do the defendants understand the charges against them

2. can defendants assist in their defence, for example by consulting a lawyer

Term
How do insight therapies differ from the Cognitive-Behavioral therapies?
Definition

Insight therapy- improvement occurs as a result of understanding the cause of mental disorder

 

 

Behavioural and cognitive therapies - don’t have to understand the cause to treat a disorder

Term
Describe three types of professionals who give psychological treatment.
Definition
Term
What two factors are associated with effective psychotherapists?
Definition

likely to be warm and direct and tend to not contradict their patients, and choose the proper treatment for their clients

 

Term
What is the dodo bird effect?
Definition
a wide range of psychotherapies are about equal in their effects
Term
List and briefly describe 3 types of behavioral therapies. 
Definition

Systematic desensitization - patients are taught to relax as they are gradually exposed to what they dear in a stepwise manner

 

Flooding therapies - expose patients to images of the stimuli they fear for prolonged periods. in vivo flooding makes them come face to face with their fears

 

Aversion therapies - treatment that uses punishment to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviours

 

Term

List and briefly describe 2 types of cognitive therapies. 

Definition

stress inoculation training - therapists teach patients to prepare for and cope with future stressful life events

 

 

Term

According to Beck, which one is most important in determining why someone gets depressed – thoughts or emotions?

 

Definition
distorted thoughts and long-held negative core beliefs
Term
What are the three major kinds of research done in psychology? Define them. 
Definition

Naturalistic observation - watching behaviour in real-world settings

Correlational studies - research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated

Experiments - research design characterized by random assignment of participants to conditions and manipulation of an independent variable

Term
What makes a study an experiment?
Definition

Control of confounds


Cause and effect – random assignment  & manipulation of independent variable 

 

Term
Independent variable
Definition
variable that an experimenter manipulates
Term
dependent variable
Definition
variable that an experimenter measures to see whether the manipulation has an effect
Term
Confound
Definition
any difference between the experimental and control groups other than the independent variable
Term
Reliability vs. Validity
Definition

Reliability is a measure of consistency of measurement

 

validity is a measure of the extent to which a measure assessed what it purports to measure

Term
Random assignment
Definition
randomly sorting participants into two groups
Term
What are the two types of experimental validity?
Definition

internal validity - extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study

 

external validity - extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

Term
What are the two main types of statistics?
Definition

Descriptive statistics - numerical characterizations that describe data

 

 

inferential statistics - mathematical methods that allow us to determine whether we can generalize findings from our sample to the full population

Term

Central tendency (descriptive statistics)

(3 things)

Definition
Term

Dispersion (descriptive statistics)

(3 things)

Definition

Dispersion is the measure of how loosely or tightly bunched scores are

 

Range - difference between the highest and lowest scores

 

Standard deviation - takes into account how far each data point is from the mean

Term
Measurement of relations
Definition

Correlation coefficient - A number between −1 and +1 calculated so as to represent the linear dependence of two variables or sets of data.

 

Scatterplot - grouping of points on a two-dimensional graph in which each dot represents a single person's data

 

Range of correlation - goes from -1 to +1.... strength of the correlation is based on absolute value...negative just means a negative correlation for example as number of beers increases, score on psych exam goes down. 

Term
Phonology and phonemes
Definition
phonemes are categories of sounds our vocal apparatus produces
Term
Morphemes
Definition
smallest meaningful units of speech (ex. dog, cat, happy or re and ish)
Term
Syntax
Definition

Grammatical rules that govern how words are composed into meaningful strings

Term
Semantics
Definition
within linguistics refers to the study of how language conveys meaning
Term
Pragmatics 
Definition
account of language acquisition that proposes children infer what words and sentences mean from context and social interactions
Term
List and describe the 4 theories of language acquisition. 
Definition

Imitation account - the idea that we learn language through imitation, can't be completely true because language is generative meaning that it allows an infinite number of unique sentences to be created by combining words in novel ways

 

Nativist account - account of language acquisition that suggests children are born knowing how language works

 

Social pragmatics account - suggests that particular aspects of the social environment help structure language learning. children learn the meaning of language through actions, expressions, gestures and other behaviours of speakers

 

General Cognitive Processing Account - proposes that children's ability to learn language is a result of general skills that children apply across a variety of activities

 

 

Term
What is IQ
Definition
the intelligence quotient (IQ) is a systematic means of quantifying differences among people in their intelligence
Term
First IQ test, the researchers who designed it & why it was created. 
Definition
Alfred Binet and Henri Simon, it was created to distinguish students who might require additional instruction in certain scholastic abilities
Term
How do you calculate ratio IQ?
Definition

Mental age/Chronological age x 100 

 

mental age is the age corresponding to the average individual's performance on an intelligence test.

 

            Ratio IQ is better than raw IQ data because it enables you to compare individual to someone their own age 

Term

How to look up a deviation IQ and why it’s better than Ratio IQ.

    

Definition

better because  After 16, scores on IQ do not change so the formula would mean everyone gets less intelligent as their chronological age increases.

 

Average IQ is 100, below average is 80, 120 is above

Term
Spearman's theory
Definition

g (general intelligence)  - hypothetical factor that accounts for overall differences in intellect among people

 

s (specific abilities) - particular ability level in a narrow domain

Term
Cattell's two types of IQ factors
Definition

fluid intelligence - capacity to learn new ways of solving problems

 

crystallized intelligence - accumulated knowledge of the world acquired over time

Term

Sternber's triarchic theory of intelligence

 

Definition

analytic - ability to reason logically ("book smarts"), closely related to g

 

creative - ability to come up with novel and effective answers to questions and to solve problems

 

practical - also called tacit intelligence, ability to solve real world problems, "Street smarts", capacity to understand others

Term
Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences
Definition

- Linguistic: speak and write well

- Logico-mathematical: use logic and math skills to solve problems, such as scientific questions

- Spatial: think and reason about objects in 3D space

- Musical- perform, understand, and enjoy music

- Bodily-kinesthetic: manipulate the body in sports, dance, or other physical endeavours

- Interpersonal: understand and interact effectively with others

- Intrapersonal: understand possess insight into self

- Naturalistic: recognize, identify, and understand animals, plants and other living things

Term
Terman's findings 
Definition

people who had above average intelligence had above average physical health and were taller and heavier than individuals of the general population 

 

child prodigies do not burn out

 

slightly lower rates of mental illness and suicide in his group of Termites

Term
What differences have been found between men and women on IQ? 
Definition

men are more variable with their overall IQ scores than women

Women are better at some verbal tasks, arithmetic, detecting feelings in others

 

Men are better at tasks requiring spatial ability (ex: mental rotation tasks), geopraphy

Term
Fetal alcohol syndrome
Definition
A pattern of mental and physical birth abnormalities found in some children of mothers who drank excessively during pregnancy.
Term
What are the 2 main kinds of developmental research designs?
Definition

Cognitive Development: study of how children learn, think, reason, communicate and remember

 

 

Social and Moral Development: the study of how infants establish bonds with caretakers and learn from social interactions

Term
What is attachment and the 4 main types.
Definition

the strong emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest

1. Secure attachment (~60%)-child protest when parent leaves and is happy when parent returns

2. Insecure-avoidant attachment (15%-20%)- child ignores parent while parent is there, does not protest when leaves and ignores parent’s return

3. Insecure-anxious attachment (15%-20%)-child clings to parent while parent there, protests when leave and is difficult to settle when parent returns

4. Disorganized attachment (5%-10%)- no consistent strategy to deal with attachment to parent, will cling and turn away from parent, will appear dissociated at times, etc

Term
Describe 4 types of parenting proposed by Baumrind's research. 
Definition

Permissive - Lenient, affectionate, very little punishment

Authoritative - Support children, but set firm limits (fare best)

Authoritarian - Strict, show little affection, strong discipline

Uninvolved - Neglectful, ignore children (fare worst)

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