Term
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Definition
| The inability to distinguish what you originally experienced from what you heard or were told later. |
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Term
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Definition
| When an unusual or tragic even takes place and holds a special place in memory. It fades just as rapidly as normal memories. |
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Term
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Definition
| Confusion of an event that happened to someone else with what happened to you, or a belief that you remember something when it actually never happened. |
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Term
| When does Confabulation occur? |
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Definition
When you have thought or heard about an event many times.
When the event is easy to imagine or contains many details |
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Term
| What factors influence Eyewitness accuracy? |
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Definition
Cross-race identification
Question wording
Misleading information
Leading questions |
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Term
| What happens when "contacted" is substituted for "collided" in a question about the speed of a car before an accident? |
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Definition
| An average estimated collision speed of ~9mph lower was given as a response. |
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Term
| Under what conditions are children more suggestible? |
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Definition
When they are very young
When interviewer's expectations are clear
When other children's memories are accessible |
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Term
| When investigators use techniques from real child-abuse investigations, how many children can be persuaded to answer affirmatively? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Conscious, intentional recollection of an even or item of information |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory preciously learned material |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to identify preciously encountered material. |
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Term
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Definition
| Unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered information on current thoughts or actions. When a trigger can set off a memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| When a person's memory is set of by information associated with the memory. |
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Term
| Three Box Model of Memory |
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Definition
| Sensory Register->Short-Term Memory->Long-Term Memory |
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Term
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Definition
| A memory system that momentarily preserves extremely accurate images of sensory information, as in an umpire using the memory to call a play. Gone forever if not passed to STM. |
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Term
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Definition
| A limited capacity memory system involved in the retention of information for brief periods, called working memory or the leaky bucket. |
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Term
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Definition
| Meaningful unit of information which may be composed of smaller units, eg. an area code. |
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Term
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Definition
| The memory system involved in the long-term storage of information. Can last forever. |
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Term
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Definition
| Learning How (To ride a bike...) |
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Term
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Definition
| Learning That (In 1492...) |
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Term
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Definition
| General Knowledge (The shirt is blue) |
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Term
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Definition
| Personal Recollection (One time, at band camp...) |
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Term
| Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) |
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Definition
| Model of memory in which knowledge is represented as connections among thousands of interacting processing units, distributed in a vast network, all operating in parallel. |
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Term
| List four things that can help us remember. |
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Definition
Serial Positioning
Rehearsal
Deep Processing
Mnemonics |
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Term
| Serial-Positioning Effect |
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Definition
| The tendency for recall of first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle of the list. |
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Term
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Definition
| Rote repetition of material in order to maintain availability in memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| Association of new information with already stored knowledge and analysis of the new information to make it memorable. |
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Term
| What are the two types of rehearsal? |
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Definition
| Elaborative and Maintenance. |
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Term
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Definition
| In the encoding of information, the processing of meaning rather than simply the physical or sensory features of a stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| Strategies and tricks for improving memory, such as use of a verse or formula. |
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Term
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Definition
Decay Theory
Replacement
Interference
Cue-Dependent forgetting |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that information in memory disappears if it is not accessed- applies more to short-term memory than long-term. |
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Term
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Definition
| Forgetting occurs rapidly at first but tapers off over time - Herman Ebbinghaus' memory of nonsense symbols followed this pattern. |
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Term
| Linton's Forgetting Curve |
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Definition
| Linton's memory of past events was retained over a period of several years and then decreased at a much more constant pace. |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that new information entering memory can wipe out old information. |
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Term
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Definition
| Similar items interfere with one another. |
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Term
| Two types of interference |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| When what you learned second interferes with what you learned first. |
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Term
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Definition
| When what you learned first interferes with what you learned second. |
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Term
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Definition
| The inability to retrieve information stored in memory because of insufficient cues for recall. |
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Term
| Can physical state become a memory cue? |
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Definition
| Yes, this is state-dependent memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to remember experiences that are consistent with one's current mood and overlook or forget experiences that are not. |
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Term
| Why is memory repression so controversial? |
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Definition
| Individuals are most likely to struggle to forget traumatic events, and it is hard to distinguish repression from other forms of forgetting. |
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Term
| When should we question if a recovered repressed memory is real? |
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Definition
| If a person claims the memories are from the first few years of life, if memories become more and more implausible over time, or if a therapist uses suggestive techniques such as hypnosis, dream analysis, age regression, guided imagery, or leading questions. |
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Term
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Definition
| The inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the first two or three years of life. |
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Term
| What are the cognitive explanations for Childhood Amnesia? |
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Definition
Lack of sense of self
Impoverished encoding
A focus on the routine
Different ways of thinking about the world |
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Term
| Watson's Extreme Environmentalism. |
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Definition
| With the right conditions, you can turn any baby into anything regardless of any other conditions. |
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Term
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Definition
| A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience |
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Term
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Definition
| An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| The association between environmental stimuli and the organism's responses |
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Term
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Definition
| An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| The association between environmental stimuli and the organism's responses |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar response |
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Term
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Definition
| Elicits response in the absence of learning |
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Term
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Definition
| the reflexive response to a stimulus in the absence of learning. |
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Term
| How do you condition a reflex? |
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Definition
| Pair a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| A response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus. Occurs after the CS has been associated with the US. |
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Term
| What are the four principles of classical conditioning |
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Definition
Extinction
Higher-Order Conditioning
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus Disicrimination |
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Term
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Definition
| The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response. Occurs when the conditional stimulus is no longer paired with the US. |
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Term
| Higher-Order Conditioning |
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Definition
| A neutral stimulus that can become conditioned by being paired with an existing stimulus (sizzling and smell of cooked meat). |
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Term
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Definition
| When a new stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli. When a stimulus similar to the CS fails to evoke a conditioned response. |
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Term
| What is learned in classical conditioning? |
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Definition
| For classical conditioning to be the most effective, the NS must precede the US. The first stimulus predicts the second, the bowl predicts the coming of the food. |
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Term
| Where do sentimental feelings come from? |
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Definition
| Objects have been associated in the past with positive feelings through classical conditioning. |
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Term
| Can we learn fear through association? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which a response becomes more or less likely to occur depending on its consequences. |
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Term
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Definition
| Neither increases nor decreases the probability that the response will occur. |
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Term
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Definition
| Strengthens the response or makes it more likely to occur. |
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Term
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Definition
| Weakens a response or makes it less likely to occur. |
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Term
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Definition
| Inherently reinforcing and typically satisfy a physiological need. |
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Term
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Definition
| Stimuli that have acquired reinforcing properties through associations with other reinforcers. |
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Term
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Definition
| When a pleasant consequence is follows a response, making the response more likely to recur. |
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Term
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Definition
| When an unpleasant consequence is removed following the response. |
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Term
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Definition
| When an unpleasant consequence follows a response, making it less likely to recur. |
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Term
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Definition
| When a pleasant consequence is removed following a response, making the response less likely to recur. |
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Term
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Definition
| Skinner trains a rat to do complex things in order to get a food pellet. |
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Term
| Principles of Operant Conditioning |
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Definition
Extinction- When a response is no longer followed by a reinforce.
Stimulus Generalization- Stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus are more likely to trigger a response.
Stimulus discrimination- The tendency of responses to occur in the presence of one stimulation but not the other. |
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Term
| What are the Schedules of Reinforcement, and which one is better to produce a continuous response? |
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Definition
Continuous-Every occurrence is reinforced
Intermittent-Only some occurrences of a response are reinforced.
Intermittent is the best choice. |
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Term
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Definition
| To teach complex behaviors, you may need to reinforce successive approximations of a desired response. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency for an organism to revert to instinctive behavior. |
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Term
| When does punishment work? |
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Definition
When it immediately follows the behavior
When it is mild rather than harsh
When it is consistent |
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Term
| When does punishment fail? |
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Definition
When the recipient responds with anxiety, fear, or rage.
When it does not immediately follow the behavior
When it does not inform the recipient how it might be avoided in the future.
When a consequence thought to be punishment proves to be reinforcing. |
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Term
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Definition
| Reinforcers not inherently related to the behavior being reinforced. |
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Term
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Definition
| Reinforcers inherently related to the behavior being reinforced. |
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Term
| How can rewards backfire? |
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Definition
| If given out multiple times, expectation of reward makes it less wanted. |
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Term
| Is learning the same as performance? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Learning new responses by observing the behavior of another rather than through direct experience. |
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Term
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Definition
| Children exposed to aggressive model more likely to respond in aggressive ways. |
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Term
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Definition
| Rules that regulate human life, including social conventions, explicit laws, and implicit cultural standards. |
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Term
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Definition
| A given social position that is governed by a set of norms for proper behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| A program of shared rules that govern the behavior |
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Term
| What was the obedience study? |
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Definition
| A study by Stanley Milgram and coworkers designed to investigate whether ow not people would follow orders that violated their ethical standards. |
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Term
| What was the result of the obedience study? |
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Definition
Every single person complied with at least some orders to shock another person.
Two-Thirds shocked the learner to the full extent. |
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Term
| What factors lead to disobedience? |
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Definition
When the experimenter left the room
When the "learner" was in the same room
When the experimenter issued conflicting orders
When the person ordering them to continue was an ordinary man
When the subject worked with peers who also refused to go on. |
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Term
| What was the prison study? |
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Definition
| A study in Stanford, where subjects volunteered to play as either prisoners or guards. |
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Term
| What was the result of the prison study? |
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Definition
People assigned to be prisoner became helpless and panicky
Those assigned to be guards became tyrannical.
The study had to be ended after six days. |
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Term
| What are the four factors of obedience? |
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Definition
Allocating responsibility to authority
Routinizing the task
Wanting to be polite
Becoming entrapped. |
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Term
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Definition
| A gradual process in which individuals escalate their commitment to a course of action to justify their investment of time, money, or effort. |
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Term
| What is social cognition? |
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Definition
| An area in social psychology concerned with social influences on thought, memory, perception, and other cognitive processes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Theory that people are motivated to explain their own and others' behavior by attributing causes of behavior to a situation or disposition. |
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Term
| Fundamental Attribution Error |
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Definition
| Tendency to overestimate personality factors and underestimate situational influences. |
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Term
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Definition
| Tendency to take credit for one's good actions but to rationalize one's mistakes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Many people need to believe that the world is fair and that justice is served. |
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Term
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Definition
| A relatively stable opinion containing beliefs and emotional feelings about a topic. |
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Term
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Definition
| We are aware of them, and they shape our conscious decisions. |
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Term
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Definition
| We are unaware of them, they influence our behavior in ways we do not recognize. |
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Term
| What factors influence attitude change? |
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Definition
Change in social environment
Change in behaviors
Need for consistency |
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Term
| What are three effective ways to influence attitudes? |
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Definition
Repetition of an idea or assertion (validity effect)
Endorsement by an admired or attractive person
Association of the message with a good feeling |
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Term
| Coercive Persuasion Methods |
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Definition
Person is under physical or emotional duress.
Person's problems are reduced to one simple explanation, repeated often.Leader offers unconditional love, acceptance, and attention.
New identity based on group is created.
Person is entrapped.
Person's access to information is controlled. |
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Term
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Definition
| When subjects in a group are asked to match line lengths and confederates are placed to pick the wrong line, subjects go with the wrong answer 37% of the time. Conformity has decreased since 1950. |
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Term
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Definition
| When close-knit groups tend to think alike and suppress disagreement for the sake of harmony. |
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Term
| What are the Symptoms of groupthink and how are they counteracted? |
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Definition
Symptoms- Illusion of invincibility, self-censorship, pressure on dissenters to conform, illusion of unanimity.
Counteracted by- Creating conditions that reward dissent and basing decision by majority rule. |
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Term
| Diffusion of responsibility |
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Definition
| The tendency of group members to avoid taking responsibility for actions or decisions because they assume others will do so. |
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Term
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Definition
| People fail to cal for help when others are near. |
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Term
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Definition
| When people work less in the presence of others, forcing others to work harder. |
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Term
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Definition
| In groups or crowds, the loss of awareness of one's own individuality. |
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Term
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Definition
| In groups or crowds, the loss of awareness of one's own individuality. |
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Term
| What are the factors of individuality? |
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Definition
Size of a city or group.
Uniforms or masks worn
Can influence either unlawful or prosocial behaviors. |
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Term
| Situational factors in nonconformity |
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Definition
You perceive the need for intervention or help.
Situation makes it more likely that you will take responsibility
Cost-Benefit ration supports decision to get involved
You have an ally.
You become entrapped. |
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Term
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Definition
The belief that one's own ethnic group, nation, or religion is superior to all others.
Aids survival by making people feel attached to their own group on group's behalf. |
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Term
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Definition
| The part of a person't self-concept based on identification with a nation, culture, or group, or with gender or other social roles. |
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Term
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Definition
| Boy's separated into two groups, and competitions fostered by hostility between groups. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive schemas of a group, in which a person believes that all members of a group share a common trait, which may be positive, negative, or neutral. |
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Term
| What are the origins of prejudice? |
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Definition
Psychological Functions
Social and cultural functions
Economical functions |
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Term
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Definition
| People inflate own self-worth by disliking groups they see as inferior. |
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Term
| Social and Cultural Functions |
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Definition
| By disliking others we feel closer to others who are like us. |
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Term
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Definition
| Legitimizes unequal economic treatment |
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Term
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Definition
Not all people are Prejudiced the same way.
People know they shouldn't be prejudiced so measures of prejudice have declined. |
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Term
| What are methods of implicit prejudice? |
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Definition
Measures of symbolic racism
Measures of behaviors rather than attitudes
Measures of unconscious associations with a target group |
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Term
| What are ways of reducing prejudice? |
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Definition
Groups must have equal legal statues, economic activities, and power.
Authorities and institutions must endorse egalitarian norms and provide moral support for all groups.
Groups must have opportunities to work and socialize together, both formally and informally.
Groups must work together for a common goal. |
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