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-use knowledge developed by experimental psychologists to solve human problems
-sports, engineering, school, rehabilitation, counseling, clinical |
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-conduct most research across psychological spectrum
-may work in private indsutry or for the government
-often teach at college or university |
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| teach classes, supervise students |
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-Wilhelm Wundt
-devoted to uncovering basic structures that make up mind and thought
-Introspection: reporting on one's own conscious mental experiences |
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-William James
-mental processes could be best understood in terms of their adaptive purpose and function |
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-interested in how we construct "perceptual wholes"
-focused on the whole person instead of parts separately
-perception and perceptual learning |
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-john b. watson
-argued psychology should deal solely with observable events
-stimuli from environment => organism's responses |
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-sigmund freud
-asserted taht mental disorders arise from conflicts in the unconscious mind |
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Psychological Perspectives:
Biological |
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o Human Nature: complex systems that respond to hereditary and environmental influences
o Behavior: neural structures, biochemistry, and innate responses to external cues
o Focus: nervous and endocrine systems, evolutionary advantages of behaviors
o = neuroscience |
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Psychological Perspectives:
Developmental |
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o Human Nature: people undergo predictable patterns of change throughout their lives
o Behavior: interaction between heredity and environment (nature vs. nurture)
o Focus: patterns of developmental change and their underlying influences |
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Psychological Perspectives:
Cognitive |
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o Human Nature: people are information-processing systems
o Behavior: interpretation of experience by means of mental processing
o Focus: mental processes including sensation, perception, learning, memory, and language |
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Psychological Perspectives:
Clinical |
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o Human Nature: trained in severe pathology, assessment, research
o Behavior: Psychodynamic View (stresses unconscious conflicts) and Humanistic View (self-concept and need for personal growth)
o Focus: counseling and psychotherapy |
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Psychlogical Perspectives:
Behavioral |
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o Human Nature: humans respond to surroundings according to principles of behavioral learning
o Behavior: stimulus cues, history of rewards and punishments
o Focus: “Laws” connecting our responses to stimulus conditions in the environment |
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Psychological Perspectives:
Trait |
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o Human Nature: individual differences result from differences in our underlying patterns of stable characteristics
o Behavior: each person’s unique combination of traits
o Focus: fundamental traits, using trait patterns to predict behavior
o “Big Five” (major personality dimensions) |
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Psychological Perspectives:
Sociocultural |
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o Human Nature: we are social beings; human behavior must be interpreted in social context
o Behavior: cultures, social norms, and expectations; social learning
o Focus: social interaction, socialization, cross-cultural differences |
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Term
| Steps of the Scientific Method |
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Definition
o A five-step process for empirical investigation of a hypothesis under conditions designed to control biases and subjective judgements
1. Developing a hypothesis
o Testable idea or prediction
o Statement predicting the outcome of a scientific study
o Hypothesis => Operational definitions: exact procedures used in establishing experimental conditions and measurement of results
2. Performing a controlled test
o Independent Variable: the variable manipulated by the experimenter
o Dependent Variable: affected by change in independent variable
o Randomization: using chance alone to determine presentation order of stimulus
3. Gathering objective data
o Data: information gathered by researchers and used to test hypothesis
o Dependent Variable: measured outcome of a study; responses of participants in a study
4. Analyzing the results
o Based on statistical analysis of results
o Hypothesis is accepted or rejected
5. Publishing, criticizing, and replicating the results |
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| Types of psychological research |
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| o Experiments, correlational studies, surveys, naturalistic observations, case studies |
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Psychological Research:
experiments |
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o Compare experimental and control conditions
o cause and effect |
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Psychological Research:
Correlational studies |
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o Correlation coefficient ( +1 => -1 )
o No independent variable manipulation
o Only one group with changing conditions
o Positive or negative variable correlation
Positive = variables move in same direction
Negative = variables move in different directions |
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Psychological research:
Surveys |
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| -questionnaire, interview, etc. |
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psychological research:
naturalistic observation |
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| written observations from watching people in natural environment |
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psychological research:
case studies |
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| in-depth investigation into single case, concentrating on onr or two specific people |
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o Researcher allowing personal beliefs to affect the outcome of a study
o Researcher may notice only the evidence confirming their hypotheses and ignore contrary data |
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| o Researcher allows his or her expectations to affect the outcome of a study |
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| o May judge different observed behavior differently |
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| how natural selection works |
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Definition
Environmental Pressure
(changes in the environment)
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Competition
(for resources)
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Selection of fittest phenotype
(from among a variety of phenotypes)
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Reproductive Success
(genotype corresponding to fittest phenotypes passed to next generation) |
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• Genotype: an organism’s genetic make-up
• Phenotype: an organism’s observable physical characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
• 1. Sensory Neurons: carry messages from sense receptors toward the central nervous system (CNS)
o One way only
• 2. Motor Neurons: carry messages from CNS toward muscles and glands
o One way only
• 3. Interneurons: carry messages between nerve cells |
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Term
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Definition
• Information enters through dendrites at the top of the nerve
• Information processed in the soma
• Electrical impulse sent through axon to next neuron
• Terminal buds at the end of the neuron can transmit signals
• The Myelin sheath insulates and protects the axon |
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Definition
• Neural Impulse = brief electric surge that acrries the neuron’s message
• Ion = charged particle that is moved across the cell membrane
• Resting Potential = inactive, negative charge
• Action Potential = active, positive charge
• Synapse
• Synaptic transmission: neurotransmitters being released to communicate |
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